Publications about the Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) of Gunnison County, ColoradoUpdated 25 March 2026
Check out The Virtual Library from Ephemeroptera Galactica, it has a very complete bibliography for mayflies worldwide and is a great source for downloadable PDF files of many publications. Many of the PDF links on this website link to the Ephemeroptera Galactica Virtual Library. Arranged by the first author's last name. Species names are linked to pages on this website. Scientific words and phrases are usually linked to wikipedia.
A | B | C | D | E | F |
G | H | I | J | K | L |
M | N | O | P | Q | R |
S | T | U | V | W | X |
Y | Z
AAaraard,K; Solem,JO; Nøst,T and Hannssen,O 1997 The macrobenthos of the pristine steam Skiftesåa, Høylandet, Norway. Hydrobiologia 348: 81-94. PDFAlexander,RD and Brown Jr,WL 1963 Mating behavior and the origin of insect wings. Occasional papers of the Museum of Zoology University of Michigan 628:1-19. PDF Alexander,LC; Delion,M; Hawthorne,DJ; Lamp,WO and Funk,DH 2009 Mitochondrial lineages and DNA barcoding of closely related species in the mayfly genus Ephemerella (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 28(3) 584-595. PDF Allan,JD 1975a The distributional ecology and diversity of benthic insects in Cement Creek, Colorado. Ecology 56(5):1040-1053. PDF Allan,JD 1975b Faunal replacement: altitudinal zonation in an alpine stream. Verhandlungen der Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie 19:1015-1022. PDF A longitudinal survey of Cement Creek in the 1970s. Allan,JD 1978a Diet of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis Mitchell) and Brown Trout (Salmo trutta L.) in an alpine stream. Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie Verhandlungen 20, 2045-2050. Allan,JD 1978b Trout predation and the size composition of stream drift. Limnology and Oceanography 23 6, 1231-1237. Allan,JD 1981 Determinants of diet of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in a mountain stream. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 38, 184-192. PDF Allan,JD 1985 The production ecology of Ephemeroptera in a Rocky Mountain stream. Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie Verhandlungen 22, 3233-3237. PDF Allan,JD 1987 Macroinvertebrate drift in a Rocky Mountain stream. Hydrobiologia 144, 261-268. Based at the Rocky Mountain Biological Lab in Gothic, the author studied Cement Creek in Gunnison County during the spring, summer and fall of 1975-1978. He found that drift densities (number of animals per 100 m³) were 10 times higher at night. 24 hour totals approached 2000 animals/100m³ in mid-summer down to 500 animals/m³ in the fall. Quote from the abstract: "Ephemeroptera, especially Baetis, dominated the drift." He studied the effects of stream discharge, benthic density (number animals/m² of bottom samples) and temperature on drift finding that discharge and benthic density significantly affected some taxa and not others, while temperature had no effect on drift. He found his results varied by whether he used drift density (number animals/m³ of water) or drift rate (number animals past a certain point for a specific time). Quote from page 265: "Expressing drift on a per unit volume basis eliminated a significant dependency of drift on flow in 5 or 8 taxa examined. Benthic density typically was the best predictor of 24 hour drift density." More information on these taxa: Baetis bicaudatus, Cinygmula spp., Epeorus longimanus Allan,JD and Feifarek,BP 1989 Distances travelled by drifting mayfly nymphs: factors influencing return to the substrate. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 8 4, 322-330. PDF Allan,JD; Flecker,AS and Kohler,SL 1991 Diel changes in epibenthic activity and gut fullness of some mayfly nymphs. Internationale Vereinigung für theoretische und angewandte Limnologie: Verhandlungen, 24(5), pp.2881-2885. Allan,JD; Flecker,AS and McClintock,NL 1986 Diel epibenthis activity of mayfly nymphs, and its nonconcordance with behavioral drift. Limnology and Oceanography 31 (5) 1057-1065. PDF Allan,JD; Flecker,AS and McClintock,NL 1987 Prey size selection by carnivorous stoneflies. Limnology and Oceanography 32 (4) 864-872. PDF Allan,JD and Russek,E 1985 The quantification of stream drift. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42:210-215. PDF Although the purpose of many drift studies is to describe quantitatively the abundance of drifting invertebrates and make comparisons between seasons or sites, almost no investigations have employed replicate sampling. We analyzed drift collections from a Rocky Mountain stream in order to investigate the variability of drift sampling. The data were normalized and the variances stabilized for each taxon examined by data transformation. The fourth root transformation was favored for five taxa and the logarithmic transformation for three. Using the 95% confidence limits on 24-k drift density for an abundant mayfly (Baetis bicaudatus), we found that six to seven replicates are required to obtain 95% CL + 58% of the mean. Drift sampling appears to require fewer replicates than benthic sampling for comparable precision. Investigators may fail to replicate drift samples because they elect to sample frequently over 24 hr in order to quantify the diel periodicity of drift. However, when comparison between sites or dates is the principal goal, we recommend that the effort normally put into frequent sampling over 24 h be invested instead in replicated sampling just after dark, whew drift normally is greatest. When we regressed drift from the first night sample against total drift from the remainder of the 24-h period, 60-90% of the variation in the latter was predicted from the single nighttime sample. Thus, little information appears to be lost by this recommended procedure. Allen,RK 1968 New species and records of Ephemerella (Ephemerella) in western North America (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 41(4):557-567 PDF Allen,RK 1974 Neochoroterpes, a new subgenus of Choroterpes Eaton from North America (Ephemeroptera: Leptophlebiidae). Canadian Entomologist 106:161-168. PDF Allen,RK 1984 A new classification of the subfamily Ephemerellinae and the description of a new genus. Pan-Pacific Entomologist 60, 245-247. Allen,R and Brusca,R 1973 The known geographic distribution of the Mexican mayfly genera in North America (Insecta: Ephemeroptera). In Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ephemeroptera, WL Peters and JG Peters (eds.). Brill Archive (pp. 49-63). PDF Allen,RK and Chao,ESM 1978 Mayflies of the Southwest: new species and records of Heptageniidae. Pan-Pacific Entomologist 54, 311-315PDF. Allen,RK and Chao,ESM 1981 Mayflies of the Southwest: new records and notes of Siphlonuridae (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Pan-Pacific Entomologist 57, 449-456. PDF Allen RK and Edmunds Jr GF. 1959 A revision of the genus Ephemerella (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). I. The subgenus Timpanoga. Canadian Entomologist 91:51-58. PDF Allen,RK and Edmunds,GF 1962 A revision of the genus Ephemerella (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). V. The subgenus Drunella in North America. Miscellaneous Publications of the Entomological Society of America 3, 147-179. PDF Allen,RK and Edmunds Jr,JF 1963 A revision of the genus Ephemerella (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). VI. The subgenus Serratella in North America. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 56:583-600. PDF Allen,RK and Murvosh,CM 1987 Mayflies (Ephemeroptera: Tricorythidae) of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 80:35-40. PDF They descibe the nymph of T. explicatus. Their key splitting T. minutus and T. explicatus is no longer valid because minutus is now a synonym of T. explicatus. Allen,RK and Murvosh,CM 1987 Leptophlebiidae of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico (Insecta: Ephemeroptera). Great Basin Naturalist 47(2):283-286. PDF Àlvarez,M; Landeira-Dabarca,A and Peckarsky,B 2014 Origin and specificity of predatory fish cues detected by Baetis larvae (Ephemeroptera; Insecta). Animal Behaviour, 96, pp.141-149. PDF Àlvarez,M and Peckarsky,BL 2005 How do grazers affect periphyton heterogeneity in streams? Oecologia 142: 576-587. PDF Àlvarez,M and Peckarsky,BL 2013 The influence of moss on grazers in high-altitude streams: food, refuge or both? Freshwater Biology, 58(9) 1982-1994. PDF Àlvarez,M and Peckarsky,BL 2014 Cascading effects of predatory fish on the composition of benthic algae in high-altitude streams. Oikos, 123(1)120-128. PDF Argyle,DW and Edmunds Jr,GF 1962 Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) of the Curecanti Reservoir Basins Gunnison River, Colorado. University of Utah Anthropological Papers 59 8, 178-189.
BBall,SL; Hebert,PDN; Burian,SK and Webb,JM 2005 Biological identification of mayflies (Ephemeroptera) using DNA barcodes. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24 (3) 508-524. PDF Banks,N 1897 New North american neuropteroid insects. Transactions of the American Entomological Society 24:21-31. PDF Banks,N 1924 Descriptions of new neuropteroid insects. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 65(12):419-455, pl. 1-4. PDF Barber-James,HM; Gattolliat,J; Sartori,M and MD Hubbard 2008 Global diversity of mayflies (Ephemeroptera, Insecta) in freshwater. Hydrobiologia 595(1) 339-350. DOI:10.1007/s10750-007-9028-y PDF Abstract: "The extant global Ephemeroptera fauna is represented by over 3,000 described species in 42 families and more than 400 genera. The highest generic diversity occurs in the Neotropics, with a correspondingly high species diversity, while the Palaearctic has the lowest generic diversity, but a high species diversity. Such distribution patterns may relate to how long evolutionary processes have been carrying on in isolation in a bioregion. Over an extended period, there may be extinction of species, but evolution of more genera. Dramatic extinction events such as the K-T mass extinction have affected current mayfly diversity and distribution. Climatic history plays an important role in the rate of speciation in an area, with regions which have been climatically stable over long periods having fewer species per genus, when compared to regions subjected to climatic stresses, such as glaciation. A total of 13 families are endemic to specific bioregions, with eight among them being monospecific. Most of these have restricted distributions which may be the result of them being the relict of a previously more diverse, but presently almost completely extinct family, or may be the consequence of vicariance events, resulting from evolution due to long-term isolation." Barmentlo,SH; Schrama,M; De Snoo,GR; Van Bodegom,PM; van Nieuwenhuijzen,A and Vijver,MG 2021 Experimental evidence for neonicotinoid driven decline in aquatic emerging insects. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(44), p.e2105692118. PDF Abstract: "There is an ongoing unprecedented loss in insects, both in terms of richness and biomass. The usage of pesticides, especially neonicotinoid insecticides, has been widely suggested to be a contributor to this decline. However, the risks of neonicotinoids to natural insect populations have remained largely unknown due to a lack of field-realistic experiments. Here, we used an outdoor experiment to determine effects of field-realistic concentrations of the commonly applied neonicotinoid thiacloprid on the emergence of naturally assembled aquatic insect populations. Following application, all major orders of emerging aquatic insects (Coleoptera, Diptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, and Trichoptera) declined strongly in both abundance and biomass. At the highest concentration (10 µg/L), emergence of most orders was nearly absent. Diversity of the most species-rich family, Chironomidae, decreased by 50% at more commonly observed concentrations (1 µg/L) and was generally reduced to a single species at the highest concentration. Our experimental findings thereby showcase a causal link of neonicotinoids and the ongoing insect decline. Given the urgency of the insect decline, our results highlight the need to reconsider the mass usage of neonicotinoids to preserve freshwater insects as well as the life and services depending on them." Bauernfeind,E and Soldan,T 2013 The Mayflies of Europe (Ephemeroptera). Brill. Baumgardner,DE 2009 Tricorythus minutus Traver, a new synonym of Tricorythodes explicatus Eaton (Ephemeroptera: Leptohyphidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 111(1):57-67. PDF Bedarik,AF and Edmunds,GF 1980 Descriptions of larval Heptagenia from the Rocky Mountain region (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae). Pan-Pacific Entomologist 56, 51-62. Bengtsson,S 1908 Berättelse öfver en resa i entomologiskt syfte til mellersta Sverige Sommaren 1907. K. Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Årsbok 6: 237-46. Bengtsson,S 1930 Kritische Bemerkungen über einige Nordische Ephemeropteren, nebst Beschreibung neuer Larven. Acta Universitatis Lundensis. 2(2) 1-27. PDF Benton,MJ and Pritchard,G 1990 Mayfly locomotory responses to endoparasitic infection and predator presence: the effects on predator encounter rate. Freshwater Biology 23(2) 363-371 Abstract Summary: " 1. The effects of predaceous stoneflies and endoparasitism by mermithid nematodes on the locomotory behaviour of individual mayflies were studied in the laboratory. The effects of predator- and parasite-induced changes in activity on predator encounter, attack and capture rates were also examined. 2. In response to predator presence non-parasitized mayflies decreased activity, while parasitized mayflies increased activity, in comparison to a control group. As a result, the faster-moving parasitized individuals encountered stonefly predators much more frequently. The frequency of attacks per encounter did not change. 3. In view of this and other studies, two predator-avoidance strategies based on mayfly locomotory and defensive capabilities are proposed: (a) Mayflies that are able effectively to flee a predator's attack and those able to employ a behavioural defence may decrease their mean velocity when a predator is detected, thereby reducing the likelihood of an encounter while allowing foraging to continue; (b) Slower-moving or otherwise defenceless mayflies may immediately move away from the area in which a predator is perceived in order to avoid an encounter. 4. In the absence of a predator, parasitized mayflies demonstrated greatly increased activity. This probably reflects increased foraging in response to the nutritional deficit imposed by the endoparasite. A decrease in upstream movement by parasitized mayflies may also indicate a parasite-imposed energy stress." Bergman,EA and Hilsenhoff,WL 1978 Parthenogenisis in the mayfly genus Baetis (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 71:167-168. Behmer,DJ and Hawkins,CP 1986 Effects of overhead canopy on macroinvertebrate production in a Utah stream. Freshwater Biology 16:287-300. Blinn,DW and Ruiter,DE 2006 Tolerance values of stream caddisflies (Trichoptera) in the lower Colorado river basin, USA. The Southwestern Naturalist 51(3):326-337. Brinkman,SF and Johnston,WD 2008 Acute toxicity of aqueous copper, cadmium, and zinc to the mayfly Rhithrogena hageni. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 54:3, 466-472. PDF Brinkman,SF and Johnston,WD 2012 Acute toxicity of zinc to several aquatic species native to the Rocky Mountains. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 62(2), 272-281. Brittain,JE 1982 Biology of mayflies. Annual review of entomology, 27(1), pp.119-147. PDF Brittain,JE 2008 Mayflies, biodiversity and climate change. International Advances in the Ecology, Zoogeography and Systematics of Mayflies and Stoneflies (128)1-14. PDF Abstract: "Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) are an ancient order of insects that are globally distributed in both northern and southern hemispheres and have survived major environmental shifts. Despite the problems associated with selection processes operating in both terrestrial and aquatic environments, mayflies have successfully colonized a wide range of freshwater habitats from the tropics to the arctic, a somewhat greater range than other hemimetabolic aquatic insects such as the Plecoptera and Odonata. While many species of Ephemeroptera require specific environmental cues, others display considerable flexibility in life cycle length and timing in relation to environmental changes. This is particularly apparent in arctic and alpine species. Climate change scenarios predict rapid shifts across many environmental gradients, including temperature and the frequency and magnitude of floods and droughts. Changes in the mayfly fauna are hypothesized in the light of the environmental tolerances, life cycle plasticity and the dispersal mechanisms of present day mayflies. During periods of rapid environmental transition certain species traits will be beneficial. Generalists will do better; specialists with strict environmental limits and poor powers of dispersal may become extinct." Brittain,JE and Saltveit,SJ 1989 A review of the effect of river regulation on mayflies (Ephemeroptera). Regulated Rivers: Research & Management, 3(1), pp.191-204. PDF Buchwalter,DB; Cain,DJ; Martin,CA; Xie,L; Luoma,SN AND Garland,JT 2008 Aquatic insect ecophysiological traits reveal phylogenetically based differences in dissolved cadmium susceptibility. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 24, 8321-8326. Buchwalter,DB and Luoma,SN 2005 Differences in dissolved cadmium and zinc uptake among stream insects: mechanistic explanations. Environmental Science and Technology 39, 498-504. Burton,GJ and McRae,TM 1972 Phoretic attachment of Simulium larvae and pupae to mayfly and dragonfly nymphs. Mosquito News 32(3):436-443. Bushnell,JH; Foster,SQ AND Wahle,BM 1987 Annotated inventory of invertebrate populations of an alpine lake and stream chain in Colorado. Great Basin Naturalist 47, 500-511. CCain,DJ; Luoma,SN and Wallace,WG 2004 Linking metal bioaccumulation of aquatic insects to their distribution patterns in a mining-impacted river. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 23, 1463-1473. Canton,SP and Chadwick,JW 1983 Seasonal and longitudinal changes in invertebrate functional groups in the Dolores River, Colorado. Freshwater Invertebrate Biology, 41-47. PDF Abstract: "A 46km section of the Dolores River, in southwest Colorado, was studied to determine the relative abundance of invertebrate functional groups over an altitudinal gradient of 500m during three seasons. The Dolores River is a third order steam with an average width of 11m in upper 8 km of the study area. In the lower 38 km of the study area, it is a fourth order stream with an average width of 15 m. Benthic invertebrates were collected with a modified Hess sampler in October 1980, and March and August 1981, from 11 stations on the Dolores River. Despite little change in either stream order, width or apparent food resources in the study area, there were noticeable differences in the relative abundance of functional groups, with shredders most abundant upstream and collectors most abundant in the mid-reaches. The observed trends were highly dependent upon season with shredders abundant at most stations only in spring. This was a result of life history patterns of winter stoneflies, the primary shredders. Collector-gatherers were most abundant at the upper-middle stations in summer, but were less abundant in the other two seasons. In general, the pattern appeared to conform more to the altitudinal shifts in benthic species composition than to stream order or width. This led to shifts in the assigned functional groups without noticeable changes in food resources." Canton,SP; Cline,LD; Short,R and Ward,JV 1984 The macroinvertebrates and fish of a Colorado stream during a period of fluctuating discharge. Freshwater Biology 14(3) 311-316. Carlisle,DM and Clements,WH 2003 Growth and secondary production of aquatic insects along a gradient of Zn contamination in Rocky Mountain streams. Journal North American Benthological Society 22(4), 582-597. Abstract and entire paper Curious about the effects of chronic metal contamination on mayfly (and other taxa) production, the authors compared two clean reference streams to three polluted streams in the mountains near Leadville, Colorado. The clean streams had 36 and 56 µ/L of Zinc respectively while the polluted streams had low (105µg/L) medium (210µg/L) or high (293µg/L) levels of Zinc. They found that secondary production of the Heptageniidae Rhitrogena robusta, Cinygmula sp. and Epeorus longimanus was lower in slightly to moderately conatminated streams. These taxa and many others were absent from seriously polluted streams and thus their productivity approached zero in streams with the highest levels of Zinc pollution. Growth estimates from feeding experiments discovered that the reduction in secondary production was mostly due to the decline of Rhitrogena robusta with increasing levels of Zinc. Caudill,CC 2002 Metapopulation biology of the mayfly Callibaetis ferrugineus hageni in high elevation beaver ponds. Cornell University Ph.D. Thesis Caudill,CC 2003 Measuring dispersal in a metapopulation using stable isotope enrichment: high rates of sex-biased dispersal between patches in a mayfly metapopulation. Oikos 101 3, 624-630. Caudill,CC and Peckarsky,BL. 2003. Lack of appropriate behavioral or developmental responses by mayfly larvae to trout predators. Ecology 84(8):2133-2144. Abstract Chaika,V; Pikula,K; Vshivkova,T; Zakharenko,A; Reva,G; Drozdov,K; Vardavas,AI; Stivaktakis,PD; Nikolouzakis,TK; Stratidakis,AK and Kokkinakis,MN 2020 The toxic influence and biodegradation of carbon nanofibers in freshwater invertebrates of the families Gammaridae, Ephemerellidae, and Chironomidae. Toxicology Reports, 7, pp.947-954. PDF Abstract: "Carbon nanofibers (CNFs) are widely used in consumer products today. In this study, we assessed the effects of CNFs on the digestive system of three freshwater invertebrate species (Gammaridae, Ephemerellidae, and Chironomidae). The aquatic insects Diamesa sp., Drunella cryptomeria, and Gammarus suifunensis were incubated with the CNFs at the concentration of 100 mg/L during the 7-days period. Histological examination of the whole specimens and the longitudinal sections revealed no toxic effects of CNFs. However, a noticeable change in the structure of the CNFs accumulated in the intestines of the aquatic insects was found by Raman spectroscopy. The registered decrease in the relative proportion of amorphous carbon included in the CNF sample was found in the intestines of Diamesa sp. and D. cryptomeria. The registered effect can indicate a biodegradation of amorphous carbon in the digestive tract of these two insect species. In contrast, the decrease of highly structured carbons and the decrease of G-bonds intensity were registered in the digestive tract of G. suifunensis. This observation demonstrates the partial biodegradation of CNFs in the digestive tract of G. suifunensis." Check,GR 1982 A revision of the North American spcies of Callibaetis (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Minnesota, USA. Clark,JL and Clements,WH 2006 The use of in situ and stream microcosm experiments to assess population- and community-level responses to metals. Environ Toxicol Chem. 25(9)2306-2312. Clayton,JA and Westbrook,CJ 2008 The effect of the Grand Ditch on the abundance of benthic invertebrates in the Colorado River, Rocky Mountain National Park. River Research and Applications, 24(7), pp.975-987. PDF Abstract: "We investigate herein the hypothesis that there is a significant relationship between bed particle mobility and benthic invertebrate abundance in the gravel-bed channel of the upper Colorado River in Rocky Mountain National Park. A large diversion channel called the Grand Ditch normally diverts a significant portion (~50%) of the annual snowmelt runoff from the watershed northward out of the basin. In May 2003, a ~30-m section of the ditch was breached, contributing substantially to the magnitude and duration of discharge in the Colorado River until the ditch breach was repaired in July of that year. As a result, all grain sizes in the river channel were mobilized, which contrasted sharply with the minimal gravel transport experienced during the exceptional drought of the previous year. Benthic macroinvertebrates were collected in the field using a Surber sampler at the same six locations for both years, and the number of individuals of the orders ephemeroptera (mayflies), plecoptera (stoneflies), trichoptera (caddisflies) and diptera (e.g. chironomids) was counted in the laboratory. The total number of individuals was 240% higher in 2003, and the proportion of mayflies in the samples increased from 25% in 2002 to 40% in 2003. In 2003, samples were also taken immediately upstream and downstream of a large flow obstruction in the channel in order to further isolate the relative importance of sediment transport against other variables affecting the stream habitat. Numbers of individuals for all taxa collected (particularly ephemeroptera and plecoptera) were nearly an order of magnitude higher at the upstream site than at the downstream, protected location. These results have important implications for the ecosystem management of streams within Rocky Mountain National Park and elsewhere." Clements,WH; Carlisle,DN; Lazorchak,JM and Johnson,PC 2000 Heavy metals structure benthic communities in Colorado mountain streams. Ecological Applications 10(2)626-638. Abstract The authors discuss the EPA's Regional Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (REMAP) data on aquatic insects among a number of mine-polluted and clean streams and rivers in Colorado. Quote from page 632: "In particular, abundance of the mayflies Rhithrogena robusta (Fig. 5b), Cinygmula sp.(Fig. 5c), and Drunella doddsi(Fig. 5d), and the stonefly Sweltsa sp.(Fig. 5e) was significantly lower at medium- and high-metal stations." Clements,WH; Herbst,DB; Hornberger,MI; Mebane,CA and Short,TM 2021 Long-term monitoring reveals convergent patterns of recovery from mining contamination across 4 western US watersheds. Freshwater Science, 40(2), pp.407-426. PDF Abstract: "Long-term studies of stream ecosystems are essential for assessing restoration success because they allow researchers to quantify recovery trajectories, gauge the relative influence of episodic events, and determine the time required to achieve clean-up objectives. To quantify responses of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages to stream remediation, we integrated results of 4 long-term (20-29 y) assessments of mining-impacted watersheds that were broadly distributed across the western US (California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana). Using a before-after control-impact (BACI) study design, we observed substantial reductions in metal concentrations and corresponding improvements of benthic assemblages following remediation. Recovery rates were relatively consistent, and streams typically recovered within 10 to 15 y after remediation was initiated (mean = 10.25 y), although episodic events changed trajectories at some sites. Differences in recovery among watersheds were likely determined by a number of factors, including the severity of contamination, effectiveness of remediation, proximity to upstream sources of colonization, and hydrologic variation. We also observed considerable variation in the rate and extent of recovery among assemblage metrics. For example, total abundance and richness recovered rapidly at most sites, but the composition of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages remained substantially altered compared with reference sites. Using piecewise linear regression, we estimated a threshold response of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) species richness at ~1 cumulative criteria unit (CCU), which is the sum of the fractions of chronic water-quality criteria for metals measured, suggesting this value was protective of benthic assemblages. However, EPT richness was reduced by ~20% at 2× this CCU value, indicating that moderate exceedances of water-quality criteria could substantially affect stream biodiversity. Non-metric multidimensional scaling analyses identified common sets of species trait states across the 4 watersheds that were associated with either metal contamination or with recovering and intact reference stream assemblages. Our study illustrates the importance of long-term studies for quantifying responses to stream restoration and the usefulness of BACI designs for demonstrating cause-and-effect relationships between restoration treatments and community recovery. Because these 4 watersheds were among the most severely polluted sites in the western US, our study demonstrates the value of these investments in watershed restoration and the potential for success under the most extreme conditions." Clubb,RW; Gaufin,AR and Lords,JL 1974 Acute cadmium toxicity studies upon nine species of aquatic insects. Environmental Research 9(3) 332-341. Abstract: Continuous-flow bioassays were employed to determine 96-hour median tolerance limits (TLm), for the stonefly, Pteronarcella badia (Hagen) (TLm was 18.0 mg Cd/l) and the mayfly, Ephemerella grandis grandis Eaton (TLm was 28.0 mg Cd/l). Ninety-six hours TLm values for other species of aquatic insects tested were not determined, since these species were relatively insensitive to cadmium. Insects exposed for four days in cadmium-containing water, then placed in tap water, show a linear rate of cadmium loss. This loss may lower or prevent mortality under ideal conditions. Colburn,T 1982a Aquatic insects as measures of trace element presence in water: Cadmium and Molybdenum. Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment: Fith Conference, ASTM STP 766, J.G. Pearson, R.B. Foster, and W.E. Bishop, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, pgs 316-325. Colburn,T 1982b Measurement of low levels of molybdenum in the environment by using aquatic insects. 29, 422-428. The author measured molybdenum (Mo) levels in several aquatic imsect species in the upper Gunnison Basin. Corkum,LD 1980 Carnivory in Ephemerella inermis Eaton nymphs (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). Entomological News 91(5):161-163. Corkum,LD and Clifford,HF 1980 The importance of species associations and substrate types to behavioural drift. Pages 331-341 in Flannigan JF; Marshall KE. Advances in Ephemeroptera Biology. Plenum Press, New York. PDF Corkum,LD μμand Clifford,HF 1981 Function of caudal filaments and correlated structures in mayfly nymphs, with special reference to Baetis (Ephemeroptera). Quaestiones Entomologicae 17:129-146. PDF Courtney,LA and Clements,WH 2000 Sensitivity to acidic pH in benthic invertebrate assemblages with different histories of exposure to metals. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 19 (1) 112-127.Abstract Courtney-Mustaphi,CJ; Steiner,E; von Fumetti,S and Heiri,O 2024 Aquatic invertebrate mandibles and sclerotized remains in Quaternary lake sediments. Journal of Paleolimnology, 71(1), pp.45-83. PDF Abstract: "Subfossil remains of aquatic invertebrates found in lacustrine sediments are useful paleoenvironmental indicators. Strongly scleroticized chitinous body parts from the exoskeleton or exuviae from invertebrates are often the most resistant to degradation during syn- and post-depositional processes. Invertebrate mandibles and body parts that superficially resemble mandibles, such as claw-like appendages and pygopodia, are frequently found in sieved Quaternary lacustrine, palustrine, and deltaic sediments. Guides, catalogs and atlases have been published that are well suited for the identification of subfossil remains for several invertebrate groups, such as chironomids, cladocerans, and ostracods, among others. However, aquatic invertebrate remains of several ecologically important invertebrate groups continue to be underused in paleoenvironmental studies, in part, because there are few visual keys or other documentation sources (e.g. descriptions, catalogs or atlases) that increase awareness and facilitate identification. Here we present sets of digital photomicrographs of pre-identified aquatic invertebrate specimens collected from streams, lakes and ponds that have been chemically cleared to preserve structures that are observed in subfossil remains in sieved sediment samples, commonly the > 100 μm size fractions. In addition, we present examples of these structures from Quaternary lake-sediment samples and cite the dispersed literature that demonstrate that these remains are preserved and remain identifiable in the fossil record. We document mandibles from several taxonomic groups that include Crustacea: Amphipoda, Isopoda, Ostracoda, and Notostraca; and Insecta orders: Coleoptera, Diptera, Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Odonata, Lepidoptera, Megaloptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera. The compilation of microphotographs also includes pygopodia and claw appendages of Plecoptera and Trichoptera, with additional images of other common invertebrate mouthpart and head remains. We describe several types of fossilizing structures that are, to our knowledge, not previously described in the paleoecological literature (e.g. mandibles of amphipods or plecopterans) but also show that some structures are considerably more variable than expected based on available descriptions, such as the mandibles of Ephemeroptera or Trichoptera, and that these can potentially be separated into different morphotypes useful for identification of subfossil material. We also discuss the potential of analyzing and interpreting the additional remains together with the remains of more commonly analyzed invertebrate groups (e.g. Chironomidae) to contribute to paleoenvironmental interpretations, which will allow assessments of functional groups (e.g. predators, shredders, grazers) or habitat types (e.g. littoral, profundal or lotic environments) that aquatic invertebrate remains originate from." Cowan,CA and Peckarsky,BL 1990 Feeding by a lotic mayfly grazer as quantified by gut fluorescence. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 9(4)368-378. PDF Crespo,JG 2011 A review of chemosensation and related behavior in aquatic insects. Journal of Insect Science, 11. PDF Culp,JM and Scrimgeour,GJ 1993 Size-dependent diel foraging periodicity of a mayfly grazer in streams with and without fish. Oikos 68(2)242-250. PDF Cutler,DR; Edwards Jr,TC; Beard,KH; Cutler,A; Hess,KT; Gibson,J and Lawler,JJ 2007 Random forests for classification in ecology. Ecology, 88(11), pp.2783-2792. PDF Abstract: "Classification procedures are some of the most widely used statistical methods in ecology. Random forests (RF) is a new and powerful statistical classifier that is well established in other disciplines but is relatively unknown in ecology. Advantages of RF compared to other statistical classifiers include (1) very high classification accuracy; (2) a novel method of determining variable importance; (3) ability to model complex interactions among predictor variables; (4) flexibility to perform several types of statistical data analysis, including regression, classification, survival analysis, and unsupervised learning; and (5) an algorithm for imputing missing values. We compared the accuracies of RF and four other commonly used statistical classifiers using data on invasive plant species presence in Lava Beds National Monument, California, USA, rare lichen species presence in the Pacific Northwest, USA, and nest sites for cavity nesting birds in the Uinta Mountains, Utah, USA. We observed high classification accuracy in all applications as measured by cross-validation and, in the case of the lichen data, by independent test data, when comparing RF to other common classification methods. We also observed that the variables that RF identified as most important for classifying invasive plant species coincided with expectations based on the literature." DDahl,J and Peckarsky,BL 2002. Induced morphological defenses in the wild: predator effects on a mayfly, Drunella coloradensis. Ecology 83:1620-1634. PDF De Jong,GD 2015 Acute toxicity of natural acidic hydrothermal alteration scar runoff and historic frequency of potential exposure to a native mayfly in the Red River, New Mexico. Environmental Earth Sciences, 74(9), pp.6871-6876. De Jong,GD 2024 Habitat and benthic community correlates of Epeorus longimanus (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae) microdistribution in a Colorado, USA, stream riffle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 117(1), pp.21-26. DeWalt,RE; Stewart,KW; Moulton,SR and Kennedy,JH 1994 Summer emergence of mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies from a Colorado mountain stream. Southwestern Naturalist 39(3) 249-256. PDF Dobrin,M and Giberson,DJ 2004 Life history and production of mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) in a spring-fed stream in Prince Edward Island, Canada: evidence for population asynchrony in spring habitats? Can. J. Zool./Rev. Can. Zool. 81(6): 1083-1095 Dodds,GS 1923 Mayflies from Colorado: descriptions of certain species and notes on others. Transactions of American Entomological Society 69: 93-116. PDF Dodds collected and reared mayflies in Boulder Creek in the Front Range of Colorado during the early 1900s. He described several mayfly species found in Gunnison County. Dodds,GS and Hisaw,FL 1925 Ecological studies on aquatic insects. IV. Altitudinal range and zonation of mayflies, stoneflies and caddisflies in the Colorado Rockies. Ecology 6(4)380-390. PDF Dosdall,LM; Goodwin,LR; Casey,RJ and Noton,L 1997 The effect of ambient concentrations of chlorate on survival of freshwater aquatic invertebrates. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada. 32(4) 839-854. This paper is mentioned in some of the PAN pesticides database http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Index.html links scattered throughout this website and on the Ambient Water Quality Guidelines for Chlorate website from Government of British Columbia, Ministry of the Environment. Downes,JA 1964 Arctic insects and their environment. Canadian Entomologist 96, 279-307. Durfee,R and Kondratieff,BC 1993 Description of adults of Baetis magnus (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Entomological News 104 (5) 227-232. The authors examined B. magnus from the Gunnison River near Gunnison among other places. They discuss the details of telling this species apart from Baetis tricaudatus. They note variation in the number and placement of several wing veins across several geographical locations. Durfee,RS and Kondratieff,BC 1994 New additions to the inventory of Colorado mayflies (Ephemeroptera). Entomological News 105(4):222-227. PDF Abstract: " Four mayfly species, Beatis dardanus, Paracloedes minutes, Homoeoneuria alleni, and Rhithrogenia pellucida are reported from Colorado for the first time. Homoeoneuria and Paracloedes represent new generic records for the state. The male terminalia of R. pellicuda from Colorado and a paratype from Minnesota are illustrated and compared, and characters are given to separate this species from the four other Rhithrogena species in Colorado. Previous tentative records for two additional species, Baetis virile and Leptophlebia nebulosa are confirmed. Biogeographic affinities for several species in the North Platte River system are discussed. A total of 43 genera and 101 species of mayflies are now known from Colorado. Durfee,RS and Kondratieff,BC 1995 Description of adults of Baetis notos (Ephemeroptera:Baetiidae). Entomological News 106 2, 71-74. Durfee,RS and Kondratieff,BC 1999 Notes on North American Baetis (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae):Baetis moffatti new synonym of B. tricaudatus and range extension for B. bundyae. Entomological News 110 3, 177-180. EEaton,AE 1869 On Centroptilum, a new genus of the Ephemeridae. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 6:131-132. Eaton,AE 1881 An announcement of new genera of the Ephemeridae. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 17:191-197. The Reverend Alfred Edwin Eaton describes the mayfly genus Choroterpes in this paper. Eaton,AE 1883-1888. A revisional monograph of recent Ephemeridae or mayflies. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, Second Series, Zoology 3:1-352, 65 pl. Eaton,AE 1892 Fam. Ephemeridae. Biologica Centrali-Americana 38:1-16, 1 pl. Edmunds Jr,GF 1945 Ovoviviparous mayflies of the genus Callibaetis (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Entomological News 56:169-171. Edmunds Jr,GF 1948 A new genus of mayflies from western North America (Leptophlebiinae). Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 61:141-148. Edmunds Jr,GF 1952a Studies on the Ephemeroptera Part I. The phylogeny and classification of the Ephemeroptera, with a study of flight mechanics and evolution of their wings. PhD Thesis, University of Massachusetts. 103 pages. Edmunds Jr,GF. 1952b Studies on the Ephemeroptera Part II. The taxonomy and biology of the mayflies in Utah. PhD Thesis, University of Massachusetts. 399 pages. Edmunds Jr,GF 1962 The food habits of the nymphs of the mayfly Siphlonurus occidentalis. Proceedings of the Utah Academy of Science, Arts and Letters 37, 73-74. Edmunds,GF 1975 Phylogenetic biogeography of mayflies. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 62(2), pp.251-263. Edmunds Jr,GF 1982 Historical and life history factors in the biogeography of mayflies. American Zoologist, 22(2), pp.371-374.PDF Abstract: "Cladistic analysis of mayflies suggests that dispersal was very asymmetrical after the new land connection between North and South America. Twenty-one genera apparently moved from South to North and Central America, but there is good evidence for only one North American genus moving into the south. Testable predictions are possible once the boreal (Laurasian) or austral (Gondwanian) designations are made. For example, Paracloeodes, a genus of austral origin, was predicted to be found in South America, and in North America in warm rivers north and east of its known distribution. These predictions have been confirmed. Other characteristics of tropical mayflies, such as length of larval period and emergence and mating patterns, may be used to predict habitats and characteristics of present North American genera. Merger events and consequent dispersal of organisms have profound influences on distributional patterns, and from such information, biologically useful generalities can be made." Edmunds Jr, GF 1995 Habitat differences between northern and southern populations of mayflies of the western United States. Pages 171-176 in Corkum LD; Ciborowski JJH. Current Directions in Research on Ephemeroptera. Canadian Scholars' Press, Inc. Toronto. Edmunds Jr,GF and Allen,RK 1964 The Rocky Mountain species of Epeorus (Iron) Eaton (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 37 4, 275-288. PDF Edmunds Jr,GF and McCafferty,WP 1988 The mayfly subimago. Annual review of entomology, 33(1)509-527. PDF Edmunds Jr,GF and Musser,GG 1960 The mayfly fauna of the Green River in the Flaming Gorge Reservoir Basin, Wyoming and Utah. University of Utah Anthropological Papers. 48:111-123. Introduction: " The construction of Flaming Gorge dam on the Green River in extreme north-eastern Utah will inundate large areas of lotic water and change the habitat to standing water. Several tributary streams will also be inundated on their lower protions but their fauna, which is largely montane, will be maintained in their exposed upper reaches. The mayfly fauna of the Green River proper is one that is so unique and diverse that its loss by inundation is very regrettable. The construction of a dam in the gorge will affect the fauna profoundly in two ways. The long, narrow deep lake will be unsuitable for most of the present river fauna. Below the dam, the river will be much cooler than at present as the cold water is released from the bottom of the thermally stratified lake. This will unquestionably materially alter the fauna for a number of miles downstream. It is probable that all of the most interesting and rare elements of the mayfly fauna of the river will become extinct in this section of the river. The first recorded mayfly collectionsfrom the Green River, where it cuts a gorge through the east end of the Uinta Mountains in Utah, were made by O.A. Peterson in 1908 at "CampDouglas", the campsite of the dinasaur quarry then being worked by personnel of Carnegie Museum. Adults of Traverella albertana and Anepeorus rusticus were reported as collected; no additional specimens of the latter genus have been collected there or at any other locality in the western United States." Edmunds Jr,GF; Tennessen,KJ 1996 Ephemeroptera. In: An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America. 3rd ed. Eds: Merritt,RW; Cummins,KW Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa, 126-163. Edmunds Jr,GF; Jensen,SL and Berner,L 1976 The Mayflies of North and Central America. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 330 pages. Has a key to adult mayflies, however the taxonomy has changed since then, you may need to consult www.itis.gov frequently. Merritt, Cummins and Berg is better for mayfly larvae. Elmork,K and Saether,OR 1970 Distribution of invertebrates in a high mountain brook in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. University of Colorado Studies Series in Biology No 31. Encalada,AC and Peckarsky,BL 2006. Selective oviposition of the mayfly Baetis bicaudatus. Oecologia 148:526-537. Abstract FFinn,DS and Poff,NL 2008 Emergence and flight activity of alpine stream insects in two years with contrasting winter snowpack. Artic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 40(4)638-646. PDF Flecker,AS and Allan,JD 1988 Flight direction in some Rocky Mountain mayflies (Ephemeroptera), with observations of parasitism. Aquatic Insects 10(1):33-42. PDF Flecker,AS; Allan,JD and McClintock,NL 1988 Male body size and mating sucess in swarms of the mayfly Epeorus longimanus. Holarctic Ecology 11 4, 280-285. PDF Flowers,RW 1980 A review of the Nearctic Heptagenia (Heptageniidae, Ephemeroptera). Pages 93-102 in Flannagan JF; Marshall KE (eds.), 1980, Advances in Ephemeroptera Biology. Plenum Press, New York. PDF Flowers,RW 1980 Two new genera of Nearctic Heptageniidae (Ephemeroptera). Florida Entomologist 63: 296-307. Splits the new genera Leucrocuta and Nixe from Heptagenia. Fritz,KM; Kashuba,RO; Pond,GJ; Christensen,JR; Alexander,LC; Washington,BJ; Johnson,BR; Walters,DM; Thoeny,WT and Weaver,PC 2023 Identifying invertebrate indicators for streamflow duration assessments in forested headwater streams. Freshwater Science, 42(3), pp.247-267. PDF Fuller,RL; Roelofs,JL and Fry,TJ. 1986 The importance of algae to stream invertebrates. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 5(4)290-296. PDF GGaufin,AR; Clubb,R and Newell,R 1974 Studies on the tolerance of aquatic insects to low oxygen concentrations. Great Basin Naturalist 34:45-59. PDF Abstract: "Acute, short-term (96-hour) tests were conducted to, determine the relative sensitivity of low oxygen concentrations to 20 species of aquatic insects. In addition, the longer-term effects of low oxygen levels on the survival, molting, growth, and emergence of 21 species were studied. This paper encompasses work conducted at the University of Montana Biological Station from 1968 to 1970 and at the University of Utah from 1966 to 1972. An evaluation of the average minimum dissolved oxygen requirements of the different groups of aquatic insects tested indicates that the mayflies are the most sensitive, that the stoneflies are next, and that the caddis flies, freshwater shrimp, true flies, and damselflies follow, in that order. While two species of mayfly could tolerate as low a dissolved-oxygen concentration as 3.3 mg/1 for 10 days, a level of 4.6 mg/1 was required for 50-percent survival at 30 days. Fifty percent of the true flies and damselflies tested were able to survive at levels ranging from 2.2 to 2.8 mg/1 for periods ranging from 20 to 92 days." Gaufin,AR and Hern,S 1971 Laboratory studies on tolerance of aquatic insects to heated waters. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 44:240-245. PDF Gerhardt,A; Bisthoven,LJ de. and Soares,AMVM 2005 Effects of acid mine drainage and acidity on the activity of Choroterpes picteti (Ephemeroptera: Leptophlebiidae). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 48:450-458. Gill,BA; Harrington,RA; Kondratieff,BC; Zamudio,KR; Poff,NL and Funk,WC 2014 Morphological taxonomy, DNA barcoding, and species diversity in southern Rocky Mountain headwater streams. Freshwater Science 33(1) 288-301 PDF Abstract: "Elevation gradients allow scientists to observe changes in fauna over a range of abiotic conditions. A variety of trends in aquatic insect diversity patterns across elevation have been reported. However, many of these studies are confounded because they include streams at lower elevations, which are often larger in size and more polluted than their higher-elevation counterparts. Moreover, such studies always relied solely on morphological delineation of taxa, thereby potentially overlooking cryptic diversity. We reduced these limitations by sampling only minimally impacted wadeable streams across an elevation gradient and by combining morphological taxonomy with deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) barcoding to identify taxa. We collected numerically abundant Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) from single streams at ~200-m elevation intervals across >1000-m transects in 3 watersheds draining the eastern slope of the Colorado Rocky Mountains. Based on morphology alone, we identified 49 numerically abundant EPT morphospecies across 26 sites. Using DNA barcoding, we found 69 distinct lineages that probably represent distinct species. EPT species richness was highest at mid-elevations, and rates of turnover along elevation transects showed no consistent elevation trend or trend among ecological zones defined by vegetation. Β-diversity across sites at comparable elevations in different watersheds showed a negative trend with increasing elevation that was marginally significant for DNA barcode taxa (p = 0.051) but not for morphospecies. Furthermore, significant (p < 0.05) differences in taxon richness, turnover, and lateral Β-diversity values generated by DNA barcoding underscore the ability of molecular tools to quantify patterns in aquatic insect diversity across elevations." Gilpin,BR and Brusven,MA 1970 Food habits and ecology of mayflies of the St. Maries River in Idaho. Melanderia 4:19-40. PDF Glozier,NE; Culp,JM; Scrimgeour,GJ; Halliwell,DB 2000 Comparison of gut fluorescence and gut dry mass techniques for determining feeding periodicity in lotic mayflies. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 19(1):169-175. PDF Gray,LJ and Ward,JV 1979 Food habits of stream benthos at sites of differing food availability. American Midland Naturalist 102 1, 157-167. HHagen,HA 1861 Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America with a list of South American species. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 4, 1-344. Hamilton,H and Clifford,F 1983 The seasonal food habits of mayfly (Ephemeroptera) nymphs from three Alberta, Canada, streams, with special reference to absolute volume and size of particles ingested. Arch. Hydrobiol., Suppl, 65(2/3), 197-234. PDF Havird,JC; Shah,AA and Chicco,AJ 2020 Powerhouses in the cold: mitochondrial function during thermal acclimation in montane mayflies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 375(1790), p.20190181. PDF Hawkins,CP 1985 Food habits of species of ephemerellid mayflies (Ephemeroptera: Insecta) in streams of Oregon. American Midland Naturalist 113(2) 343-352. PDF Hawkins,CP 2009 Revised invertebrate RIVPACS model and O/E index for assessing the biological condition of Colorado streams. Prepared by Western Center for Monitoring and Assesment of Freshwater Ecosystems, Department of Watershed Sciences, Utah State University for Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, Water Quality Control Division-Monitoring Unit. PDF Heinold,B 2010 The mayflies (Ephemeroptera), stoneflies (Plecoptera), and caddisflies (Trichoptera) of the South Platte River Basin of Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 375 pages. 148 distribution maps. PDF Heinold,B and Pomeranz,J 2011 Colorado River Aquatic Resources Investigations Federal Aid Project F-237R-18 R. Barry Nehring General Professional V Co-Authors. PDF Hermann,M; Amekor,MK; Contrucci,E; Evarita,AM; Peeters,ET and Van den Brink,PJ 2025 Multiple stressor effects of a neonicotinoid, heatwaves, and elevated temperatures on aquatic insect emergence. Environmental Science & Technology, 59(28), pp.14226-14238. PDF Abstract: "Intensive agricultural practices, including neonicotinoid insecticides, and climate change are two potential drivers of global insect decline, contributing to biodiversity loss. However, ecologically realistic field experiments investigating these multiple stressor effects on emerging aquatic insects are scarce. To empirically test whether exposure to imidacloprid (1, 10 µg/L) and two different climate change scenarios (i) elevated temperatures (+4 °C vs. ambient temperatures) and (ii) reoccurring heatwaves (+0 to 8 °C) may cause a decline in insect emergence, we conducted an outdoor mesocosm study. Aquatic insect communities were exposed to single and combined stressors, while emergence was monitored during a 3-month period. We report significant losses in insect biomass and abundance under single and combined treatments. The high imidacloprid treatment and elevated temperatures combined caused a significant 47% decline in total insect biomass across the insect orders Diptera, Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Odonata, and Trichoptera. Community structure and population dynamics were significantly affected, with Diptera and Ephemeroptera being most sensitive to the high and both imidacloprid treatments, respectively. Diptera dominated but was significantly reduced by the high imidacloprid and heatwave combination. Temperature-enhanced imidacloprid toxicity and the significant threat these stressors pose to aquatic insect communities highlight the need for effective climate change mitigation strategies to conserve aquatic insect biodiversity." Herrmann,J and Andersson,KG 1986 Aluminum impact on respiration of lotic mayflies at low pH. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 30, 703-709. Hill,WR and Knight, AW 1987 Experimental analysis of the grazing interaction between a mayfly and stream algae. Ecology (68)6:1955-1965.Abstract Hughes,JM; Mather,PB; Hillyer,MJ; Cleary,C and Peckarsky,B 2003 Genetic structure in a montane mayfly Baetis bicaudatus (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae), from the Rocky Mountains, Colorado. Freshwater Biology 48, 2149-2162. PDF IIrving,EC; Baird,DJ and Culp,JM 2003 Ecotoxicological responses of the mayfly Baetis tricaudatus to dietary and waterborne cadmium: implications for toxicity testing. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22, 1058-1064. JJacobsen,RE 1995 Symbiotic associations between Chironomidae (Diptera) and Ephemeroptera. Pages 317-332 in Corkum LD; Ciborowski JJH. Current Directions in Research on Ephemeroptera. Canadian Scholars' Press, Inc. Toronto. PDF Jacobus,LM 2019 Ephemeroptera of Canada. ZooKeys, (819)211-225. HTML Jacobus,LM and Fleek,ED 2010 Insecta, Ephemeroptera, Ephemerellidae, Attenella margarita (Needham, 1927): Southeastern range extension to North Carolina, USA. Check List 6(2):311-313. PDF Jacobus,LM; Macadam,CR and Sartori,M 2019 Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and their contributions to ecosystem services. Insects, 10(6), p.170. html Abstract: "This work is intended as a general and concise overview of Ephemeroptera biology, diversity, and services provided to humans and other parts of our global array of freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. The Ephemeroptera, or mayflies, are a small but diverse order of amphinotic insects associated with liquid freshwater worldwide. They are nearly cosmopolitan, except for Antarctica and some very remote islands. The existence of the subimago stage is unique among extant insects. Though the winged stages do not have functional mouthparts or digestive systems, the larval, or nymphal, stages have a variety of feeding approaches—including, but not limited to, collector-gatherers, filterers, scrapers, and active predators—with each supported by a diversity of morphological and behavioral adaptations. Mayflies provide direct and indirect services to humans and other parts of both freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. In terms of cultural services, they have provided inspiration to musicians, poets, and other writers, as well as being the namesakes of various water- and aircraft. They are commemorated by festivals worldwide. Mayflies are especially important to fishing. Mayflies contribute to the provisioning services of ecosystems in that they are utilized as food by human cultures worldwide (having one of the highest protein contents of any edible insect), as laboratory organisms, and as a potential source of antitumor molecules. They provide regulatory services through their cleaning of freshwater. They provide many essential supporting services for ecosystems such as bioturbation, bioirrigation, decomposition, nutrition for many kinds of non-human animals, nutrient cycling and spiraling in freshwaters, nutrient cycling between aquatic and terrestrial systems, habitat for other organisms, and serving as indicators of ecosystem health. About 20% of mayfly species worldwide might have a threatened conservation status due to influences from pollution, invasive alien species, habitat loss and degradation, and climate change. Even mitigation of negative influences has benefits and tradeoffs, as, in several cases, sustainable energy production negatively impacts mayflies." Jacobus,LM and McCafferty,WP 2003 Revisionary contributions to North American Ephemerella and Serratella (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). Journal of the New York Entomological Society 111:174-193. PDF This paper reorganized the taxonomy map for the genus Ephemerella. Jacobus,LM and McCafferty,WP 2004 Revisionary contributions to the genus Drunella (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). Journal of the New York Entomological Society 112:127-147. PDF Jacobus,LM and McCafferty,WP 2006 A new species of Acentrella Bengtsson (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae) from Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA. Aquatic Insects 28:101-111. PDF They describe a new species and provide a key to North American Acentrella species. Jacobus,LM and McCafferty,WP 2008 Revision of Ephemerellidae genera (Ephemeroptera). Transactions of the American Entomological Society 134: 185-274. PDF Jensen,PD 2006 Ecological Impact of Selenium and Mercury on two Insect Food Chains. PhD Dissertation, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA. Jensen,SL 1966 The Mayflies of Idaho (Ephemeroptera). M.S. Thesis, University of Utah, Utah. 364 p. Jensen,SL and Edmunds Jr,GF 1973 Some phylogenetic relationships within the Heptageniidae. Pages 82-87 in W. L. Peters & J. G. Peters, eds., Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ephemeroptera, E. J. Brill, Leiden. Johnson,SC 1978 Larvae of Ephemerella inermis and E. infrequens (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). Pan-Pacific Entomologist 54, 19-25. The larvae in our area are difficult to distinguish using the drawings in this paper. Our animals are in between. Further study of mature specimens may work, but don't try to identify young specimens unless you have other information indicating which species it is. KKerans,BL; Peckarsky BL and Anderson,C 1995 Estimates of mayfly mortality: is stonefly predation a significant source?. Oikos 74(2):315-323. PDF s Kjӕrstad,G; Webb,JM and Ekrem,T, 2012 A review of the Ephemeroptera of Finnmark-DNA barcodes identify Holarctic relations. Norwegian Journal of Entomology, 59(2), pp.182-195. PDF Kiffney,PM and Clements,WH 1993 Bioaccumulation of heavy metals by benthic invertebrates at the Arkansas River, Colorado. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 12, 1507-1517. Kiffney,PM and Clements,WH 1994 Effects of heavy metals on a macroinvertebrate assemblage from a Rocky Mountain stream in experimental microcosms. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 13 4, 511-523. Quote from page 519-520: "Our results were similar to other experiments (Clements et al. 1988a, 1988b, Leland et al. 1989, Kiffney and Clements 1994) and field studies (Chadwick et al. 1986, Clements 1994; Clements, unpublished results) that have examined the effects of metals on stream macroinvertebrates. Specifically, mayflies and some stoneflies were sensitive, and caddisflies and chironomids were relatively tolerant to metal exposure. However, the sensitivity to metals differed within families, genera and across lifestages." Kiffney,PM and Clements,WH 1996 Size-dependent response of macroinvertebrates to metals in experimental streams. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 15(8)1352-1356. Kilgore,JL and Allen,RK 1973 Mayflies of the Southwest: new species, descriptions, and records (Ephemeroptera). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 66(2):321-332. PDF Describes the larvae of Choroterpes inornata, Paraleptophlebia memorialis and Tricorythodes minutus among other things. The dorsal view illustrations of these nymphs are wonderful :-) Kjer,KM 2004 Aligned 18S and insect phylogeny. Systematic biology, 53(3), pp.506-514. PDF Abstract: "The nuclear small subunit rRNA (18S) has played a dominant role in the estimation of relationships among insect orders from molecular data. In previous studies, 18S sequences have been aligned by unadjusted automated approaches (computer alignments that are not manually readjusted), most recently with direct optimization (simultaneous alignment and tree building using a program called ”POY”). Parsimony has been the principal optimality criterion. Given the problems associated with the alignment of rRNA, and the recent availability of the doublet model for the analysis of covarying sites using Bayesian MCMC analysis, a different approach is called for in the analysis of these data. In this paper, nucleotide sequence data from the 18S small subunit rRNA gene of insects are aligned manually with reference to secondary structure, and analyzed under Bayesian phylogenetic methods with both GTR+I+G and doublet models in MrBayes. A credible phylogeny of Insecta is recovered that is independent of the morphological data and (unlike many other analyses of 18S in insects) not contradictory to traditional ideas of insect ordinal relationships based on morphology. Hexapoda, including Collembola, are monophyletic. Paraneoptera are the sister taxon to a monophyletic Holometabola but weakly supported. Ephemeroptera are supported as the sister taxon of Neoptera, and this result is interpreted with respect to the evolution of direct sperm transfer and the evolution of flight. Many other relationships are well-supported but several taxa remain problematic, e.g., there is virtually no support for relationships among orthopteroid orders. A website is made available that provides aligned 18S data in formats that include structural symbols and Nexus formats." Kluge,N 1994 Pterothorax structure of mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and its use in systematics. Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France, 99(1), pp.41-61. HTML Summary: "The features of mayfly pterothorax structure which are necessary for systematics are described. The terms used by different authors are specified and the necessary new terms are given. The correspondence between external structure and musculature is ascertained. Examples of use of the pterothorax structure n mayfly systematics are given." Kluge,NJ 2022 Taxonomic significance of microlepides on subimaginal tarsi of Ephemeroptera. Zootaxa, 5159(2), pp.151-186. Abstract: "In each mayfly individual, the surface of the subimaginal cuticle significantly differs both from imaginal and larval cuticles, being different on different parts of the body. Most of the subimaginal body, including femora and tibiae, is covered with microtrichia. Tarsal segments are either also covered with microtrichia, or their microtrichia are transformed into microlepides of various shapes. The most usual forms of microlepides are the pointed and the blunt ones. Arrangements of microtrichia, pointed microlepides, blunt microlepides and other forms of microlepides on certain tarsomeres represent good taxonomic characters, which in some cases allow characterization of high level taxa, and in some cases distinguish closely related species. Arrangement of microlepides and microtrichia on subimaginal tarsi of examined mayfly species is given. The following new synonyms are proposed: Afroptilum boettgeri (Kopelke 1980) = Xyrodromeus africanus Lugo-Ortiz McCafferty 1997, syn. n.; Labiobaetis vinosus (Barnard 1932) = L. tenuicrinitus (Kopelke 1980), syn. n.; Baetis parvulus Crass 1947 = Baetis permultus Kopelke 1980, syn. n.; Epeorus gilliesi Braasch 1981 = Epeorus petersi Sivaruban et al. 2013, syn. n.; Dicercomyzon femorale Demoulin 1954 = Dicercomyzon costale Kimmins 1957, syn. n." Knopp,M and Cormier,R 1997 Mayflies: An anglers study of trout water Ephemeroptera. Lyons Press, Guilford, CT. 366 pages. Buy from Amazon.com 
This book has rather inaccurate illustrations of some larvae. For example the illustration of Caenis amica has the large gill covers drawn on a Baetis-like body. However, once you know what species you're looking at, this book has helpful information on flyfishing and fly patterns for imitating the various life stages of many mayflies. Komnick,H and Abel,JH Jr. 1971 Location and fine structure of the chloride cells and their porus plates in Callibaetis spec. (Ephemeropteraa, Baetidae). PDF Komnick,H; Rhees,RW and Abel,JH 1972 The function of ephemerid chloride cells. Histochemical, autoradiographic and physiological studies with radioactive chloride on Callibaetis. Cytobiologie 5:65-82. PDF Komnick,H and Stockem,W 1973 The porous plates of coniform chloride cells in mayfly larvae: high-resolution analysis and demonstration of solute pathways. Journal of Cell Science 12:665-681. PDF Kondratieff,BC and Voshell Jr,JR 1984 The North and Central American species of Isonychia (Ephemeroptera: Oligoneuriidae). Transactions of the American entomological Society, pp.129-244. This genus lives at lower elevations in Colorado. It has not been found in the upper Gunnison basin, however one of their findings may apply to mayflies here and across the world. Quote from the abstract: "Many characters used in the past as specific criteria were found to be related to water temperature and geography." Koslucher,DG and Minshall,GW 1973 Food habits of some benthic invertebrates in a northern cool-desert stream (Deep Creek, Curlew Valley, Idaho-Utah). Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, 92(3) 441-452. Abstract Koss RW and Edmunds,GF Jr. 1974 Ephemeroptera eggs and their contribution to phylogenetic studies of the order. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 55:267-349, pl. 1-24. PDF Kotalik,CJ; Clements,WH and Cadmus,P 2017 Effects of magnesium chloride road deicer on montane stream benthic communities. Hydrobiologia, 799(1), pp.193-202. PDF Abstract: "Montane streams often intercept and run parallel to roads and highways where road deicer is seasonally applied for snow and ice removal. This research used stream mesocosms to evaluate the effects of MgCl2 road deicer to a Rocky Mountain stream benthic community in Colorado, USA. Measured responses included macroinvertebrate drift, community composition metrics, and macroinvertebrate biomass after a 10-day exposure. Natural benthic communities were exposed to concentrations of liquid MgCl2 road deicer that bracketed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) surface water chronic chloride ‘aquatic life criteria’ (230 mg Cl—/l). Results showed no effects on macroinvertebrate drift, but significant reductions in abundance, taxa richness, and community biomass. Specifically, stonefly (Plecoptera) and mayfly (Ephemeroptera) abundance decreased at Cl— concentrations below the U.S. EPA chronic chloride water quality standard, and at concentrations substantially lower than those generated from traditional laboratory toxicity tests. However, caddisflies (Trichoptera), midges (Chironomidae) and other dipterans were tolerant to all MgCl2 treatments. We conclude that MgCl2 road deicer has the potential to impair montane stream benthic communities at relatively low ionic concentrations, and regulatory agencies should manage for and establish regionally appropriate application rates for this stressor." LLarkin,JM; HenkMC and Burton,SD 1990 Occurrence of a Thiothrix sp. attached to mayfly larvae and presence of parasitic bacteria in the Thiothrix sp. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 56:357-361. PDF Larson,EI; Poff,NL; Atkinson,CL and Flecker,AS 2018 Extreme flooding decreases stream consumer autochthony by increasing detrital resource availability. Freshwater Biology, 63(12), pp.1483-1497. PDF Leach,WE 1815 Entomology. Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopaedia 9:57-172. Describes the genus Baetis for the first time. Lehmkuhl,DM 1968 Observations on the life histories of four species of Epeorus in western Oregon (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae). Pan-Pacific Entomologist 44(2):129-137. PDF Li,R; Lei,Z; Li,W; Zhang,W and Zhou,C 2021 Comparative mitogenomic analysis of heptageniid mayflies (Insecta: Ephemeroptera): Conserved intergenic spacer and trna gene duplication. Insects, 12(2), p.170. Liegeois,M; Sartori,M and Schwander,T 2019 Extremely widespread parthenogenesis and a trade-off between alternative forms of reproduction in mayflies (Ephemeroptera). BioRxiv, 841122. PDF Linnaeus,C 1758 Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum caracteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. L. Salvii, Holmiae [= Stockholm]. 824 p. Carl Linnaeus at Wikipedia Lugo-Ortiz,CR and McCafferty,WP 1995 Annotated inventory of the mayflies (Ephemeroptera) of Arizona. Entomological News 106(3) 131-140. PDF Lugo-Ortiz,CR and McCafferty,WP 1996 Contribution to the taxonomy of Callibaetis (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae) in southwestern North America and Middle America. Aquatic Insects 18:1-9. Lugo-Ortiz,CR and McCafferty,WP 1998 A new North American genus of Baetidae (Ephemeroptera) and key to Baetis complex genera. Entomological News 109 5, 345-353. PDF Lugo-Ortiz,CR; McCafferty,WP and Waltz,RD 1994 Contribution to the taxonomy of the Panamerican genus Fallceon (Ephemeroptera:Baetidae) Journal of the New York Entomological Society. 102:460-475. MMa,Z; Li,R; Zhu,B; Zheng,X and Zhou,C 2022 Comparative mitogenome analyses of subgenera and species groups in Epeorus (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae). Insects, 13(7), p.599. PDF Mangum,FA and Madrigal,JL 1999 Rotenone effects on aquatic macroinvertebrates of the Strawberry River, Utah: a five-year summary. Journal of Freshwater Ecology, 14(1), pp.125-135. PDF Abstract: "Before treatment with a 3 mg/1 Noxfish (0.15 mg/1 active ingredient; rotenone) for 48 hours, benthic invertebrate communities were quantitatively sampled with a modified Surber net. Then spring, summer, and fall post-rotenone samples were taken monthly at each of four Strawberry River stations for five years. Statistical analyses of the data indicated that the application of rotenone had a significant effect on the following species density: Cinygmula sp., Pteronarcella badia, Hesperoperla pacifica, Hydropsyche sp., and Brachycentrus americanus. Thirty-three percent of the benthic invertebrate taxa at the four stations showed resistance to rotenone. Up to 100% of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera species were missing after the second rotenone application. Forty-six percent of the taxa recovered within one year, but 21% of the taxa were still missing after five years. Of the 19 taxa still missing, 47% were Trichoptera, 21% were Ephemeroptera, 16% were Plecoptera, 11% were Coleoptera, and 5% were Megaloptera." Magnum,FA and Winget,RN 1991 Environmental profile of Drunella (Eatonella) doddsi (Needham) (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). Journal of Freshwater Ecology 6 (1) 11-22. This is one of a series of papers by scientists in Utah working on stream samples from all over the Western United States. Magnum,FA and Winget,RN 1993 Environmental profile of Drunella grandis Eaton (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae) in the Western United States. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 8 (2) 133-140. Mani,MS 1968 Ecology and biogeography of high altitude insects (Vol. 4). Springer-Verlag New York 541 pages. Marden,JH; O’Donnell,BC; Thomas,MA and Bye,JY 2000 Surface-skimming stoneflies and mayflies: The taxonomic and mechanical diversity of two-dimensional aerodynamic locomotion. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 73(6), 751-764. PDF Maret,TR; Cain,DJ; MacCoy,DE and Short,TM 2003 Response of benthic invertebrate assemblages to metal exposure and bioaccumulation associated with hard-rock mining in northwestern streams, USA. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 22 4, 598-620. Abstract and entire paper Matsuda,K; Buckingham,SD; Kleier,D; Rauh,JJ; Grauso,M and Sattelle,DB 2001 Neonicotinoids: insecticides acting on insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Trends in pharmacological sciences, 22(11), pp.573-580. Abstract: "Imidacloprid is increasingly used worldwide as an insecticide. It is an agonist at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and shows selective toxicity for insects over vertebrates. Recent studies using binding assays, molecular biology and electrophysiology suggest that both α- and non-α-subunits of nAChRs contribute to interactions of these receptors with imidacloprid. Electrostatic interactions of the nitroimine group and bridgehead nitrogen in imidacloprid with particular nAChR amino acid residues are likely to have key roles in determining the selective toxicity of imidacloprid. Chemical calculation of atomic charges of the insecticide molecule and a site-directed mutagenesis study support this hypothesis." McCafferty,WP 1977 Biosystematics of Dannella and related subgenera of Ephemerella (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 70(6) 881-889. PDF McCafferty,WP 1983 Aquatic Entomology: The Fishermens Guide and Ecologists Illustrated Guide to Insects and Their Relatives. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc. 480 pages. McCafferty,WP 1991 Toward a phylogenetic classification of the Ephemeroptera (Insecta): A commentary on systematics. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 84, 343-360. PDF McCafferty,WP 1992 New larval desciptions and comparisons of North American Chloroterpes (Ephemeroptera: Leptophlebiidae) Great Lakes Entomologist (25)71-78. McCafferty,WP 1996 The Ephemeroptera species of North America and index to their complete nomenclature. Transactions of American Entomological Society 122 (1) 1-54. Checklist, very handy for verifying name changes. The website http://www.entm.purdue.edu/entomology/research/mayfly/basis.html continues to update this information. McCafferty,WP 1996 Emendations to the Callibaetis (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae) of South America. Entomological News 107 4, 230-232. McCafferty,WP 1997 Name adjustments and a new synonym for North American Ephemeroptera species. Entomological News 108 4, 318, 320. McCafferty,WP 1998 Ephemeroptera and the Great American Interchange. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 17(1)1-20 PDF Abstract: "The Panamerican Ephemeroptera fauna is evaluated with respect to the interchange of generic lineages and species between the Americas, and comparisons are drawn with classical studies of the American interchange based on other biota. Cladistic, distributional, and behavioral data are presented or reviewed that support the following hypotheses and conclusions: The Central American corridor has strongly favored northward dispersal, with 29 of 85 potential South American donor genera having infiltrated Central America, and 21 of those having further penetrated Nearctic North America. Only 10 of 63 potential North American donor genera have dispersed into Central America, and of those only Cercobrachys, Choroterpes, Epeorus, and Hexagenia have broached the Central American corridor. Only 8 species among the genera Campylocia, Cloeodes, Euthyplocia, Guajirolus, Hexagenia, Mayobaetis, and Tortopus co-occur in South and Central America. All belong to South American lineages, and 5 are large, relatively strong flying ephemeroid mayflies--the 3 belonging to Euthyplocia and Hexagenia having further penetrated North America. Species range extensions between North and Central American are less restricted, with 34 species of genera of South American origin and 9 species of genera of North American origin co-occurring in the continental Neotropics ("Central America") and Nearctic region ("North America") of the Northern Hemisphere. Late Neogene and Holocene dispersal can account for most infiltration of Central America as well as interchanges across the corridor. Bi-directional dispersal is evident in Caenis and Hexagenia. Vicariance has evidently affected the Panamerican distribution of Hexagenia and Homoeoneuria. Mid-Tertiary or earlier southward and more recent northward dispersal of Hexagenia is consistent with the distribution and phylogeny of the genus. A relatively early northward dispersal of Homoeoneuria is suggested by the presence of a distinct lineage in South America and the Holarctic sister relationship of Homoeoneuria and Oligoneurisca. Distributional pattern analysis predicts that the widespread Panamerican genus Callibaetis is of South American origin." McCafferty,WP 1998 Additions and corrections to Ephemeroptera species of North America and index to their complete Nomenclature. Entomological News 109 (4) 266-268. McCafferty,WP; Durfee,RS and Kondratieff,BC 1993 Colorado mayflies (Ephemeroptera): an annotated inventory. Southwestern Naturalist 38 (3) 252-274. PDF Abstract: "Fourteen families, 41 genera, and 97 species of Ephemeroptera are confirmed for the state of Colorado. Of these, two families, 11 genera (Acerpenna, Apobaetis, Barbaetis, Camelobaetidius, Centroptilum, Heterocloeon, Ironopsis, Lachlania, Macdunnoa, Neochoroterpes, and Pseudiron), and 37 species are reported for the first time. The probability of certain additional genera eventually being found in Colorado is discussed. Previous and new records from 48 of the 63 Colorado counties are provided. The eastern plains region of the state remains relatively poorly known. Colorado species fit one of the following distributional patterns: continental widespread, continental mountain, northern transcontinental, northwestern, Rocky Mountain, southwestern, eastern-midwestern fringe, or western sand/silt riverine. Taxonomic, distributional, and other data that may be pertinent to Colorado Ephemeroptera are given for each species." McCafferty,WP and Jacobus,LM 2020 Mayfly central. https://www.entm.purdue.edu/mayfly/ McCafferty,WP and MacDonald,JF 1994a New records of Ephemeroptera in Utah, with notes on biogeography. Entomological News 105 4, 217-221. McCafferty,WP and Pereira,C 1984 Effects of developmental thermal regimes on two mayfly species and their taxonomic interpretation. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 77(1), pp.69-87. PDF Abstract: "Hexagenia limbata and Stenacron interpunctatum were studied to determine the source and significance of intraspecific variabiltity. Life cycles at two study sites in Indiana were complex, with at least two cohorts each. Maturation times determined in the laboratory for test groups of single populations decreased with warmer experimental temperature gradients (escalating developmental thermal regimes of 6 to 26°C, 12 to 26°C, 18 to 26°C, and 24 to 26°C, respectively). Degree-day accumulation was important for H. limbata emergence at the two colder regimes, whereas a minimum water temperature of 18°C was necessary for S. interpunctatum emergence. Reared adults varied in those phenotypic characters previously thought to have delimited multiple species or subspecies. Variability was either significantly correlated with developmental thermal regime or temperature independent and apparently individual. Size, intensity of color, and maculation were temperature dependent and increased as maturation time increased. Museum specimens from throughout the species ranges reflect the relationship between color types and thermal regimes. We conclude that subspecific classifications of both species are not tenable, and variants, for the most part, represent ecophenotypes." McCafferty,WP and Waltz,RD 1986. Baetis magnus, new species, formal new name for Baetis sp. B of Morihara and McCafferty (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 88:604. McCafferty,WP and Waltz,RD 1990 Revisionary synopsis of the Baetidae (Ephemeroptera) of North and Central America. Transactions of American Entomological Society 116, 769-799. PDF Abstract: "Considerable nomenclatural revision of the North and Middle American Baetidae has resulted from comprehensive research aimed at formulating a phylogenetic classification. The 17 Nearctic species in Pseudocloeon not previously assigned to Acentrella or Apobaetis are newly placed in Baetis or Barbaetis. Cloeon in the area is restricted to C. cognatum, while two species previously in Cloeon are placed in Centroptilum and nine in Procloeon, a genus considered for the first time in the Nearctic. Definitions of Centroptilum and Procloeon are modified, both now incorporate species with hindwings and species without hindwings, and 19 species are transferred from Centroptilum to Procloeon. Pseudocentroptilum s. auctt. in North America is synonymized with Procloeon. Neocloeon is recognized as a synonym of Centroptilum s. str. and removed from synonymy with Cloeon. Dactylobaetis is placed in synonymy with Camelobaetidius, and all species, including those from South America, are newly combined. Two species of Baetis are transferred to Acerpenna, and two to Fallceon. A checklist includes 154 currently recognized species among 19 genera in the area, and incorporates 21 new species synonyms and 57 new combinations. The names Baetis armillatus and Baetis cinctutus are substituted for Pseudocloeon parvulum and Pseudocloeon cingulatum, respectively, which otherwise attain homonymic status. Regional distributions for each species and abbreviated synonymies since 1976 are annotated to the checklist. Brief discussions of each genus include information on species diagnosis, revisionary bases, status, and needs. A guide to all nomenclatural changes and added taxa since 1976 provides the bibliographic sources of all such information and serves as a ready index to name equivalencies resulting from extensive recent and present revisions." McCafferty,WP and Wang,T-Q 1994 Phylogenetics and the classification of the Timpanoga complex (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 13 4, 569-579. McCafferty,WP and Wang,T-Q 2000 Phylogenetic systematics of the major lineages of Pannote mayflies (Ephemeroptera: Pannota). Transactions of American Entomological Society 126 (1) 9-101. McCafferty,WP; Wigle,MJ and Waltz,RD 1994 Systematics and biology of Acentrella turbida (McDunnough) (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Pan-Pacific Entomologist 70, 301-308. McCullough DA; Minshall GW and Cushing,CE 1979 Bioenergetics of a stream "collector" organism, Tricorythodes minutus (Insecta: Ephemeroptera). Limnology and Oceanography 24:45-58. McDunnough,J 1921 Two new Canadian May-flies (Ephemeridae). Canadian Entomologist 53:117-120. McDunnough,J 1923 New Canadian Ephemeridae with notes. Canadian Entomologist 55, 39-50. McDunnough,J 1926 Notes on North American Ephemeroptera with descriptions of new species. Canadian Entomologist. 58:184-196. McDunnough,J 1928 The Ephemeroptera of Jasper Park, Alta. Canadian Entomologist 60, 8-10. McDunnough,J 1931 New species of North American Ephemeroptera. Canadian Entomologist 63, 82-93. McDunnough,J 1933 The nymph of Cinygma integrum and description of a new heptagenine genus. Canadian Entomologist 65:73-76. McIntosh,AR; Peckarsky,BL and Taylor,BW 1999 Rapid size-specific changes in the drift of Baetis bicaudatus (Ephemeroptera) caused by alterations in fish odour concentration. Oecologia 118(2) 256-264. PDF McIntosh,AR; Peckarsky,BL and Taylor,BW 2002 The influence of predatory fish on mayfly drift: extrapolating from experiments to nature. Freshwater Biology 47, 1497-1513. PDF McIntosh,AR; Peckarsky,BL and Taylor,BW 2004. Predator-induced resource heterogeneity in a stream food web. Ecology 85(8) 2279-2290. Abstract McPeek,MA and Peckarsky,BL 1998. Life histories and the strengths of species interactions: combining mortality, growth and fecundity effects. Ecology 79(3) 867-879. PDF Mebane,CA; Dillon,FS and Hennessy,DP 2012 Acute toxicity of cadmium, lead, zinc, and their mixtures to stream-resident fish and invertebrates. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 31(6), 1334-1348. PDF Merritt,RW; Cummins,KW (Eds.) 1996 An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America. 3rd ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa. 862 pages. The best all around aquatic insect key and general reference for North America. Technical, not for field identifications, you need a microscope for most of the characters used in the dichotomous keys. Not a first bug book or a book for beginners. Merritt,RW; Cummins,KW and Berg,MB (Eds.) 2008 An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America. 4th ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa. 1158 pages. The latest edition of a classic aquatic entomology key. Required for all serious aquatic insect identification in America. Mesick,CF and Tash,JC 1980 Effects of electricity on some benthic stream insects. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 109(4), pp.417-422. Abstract: "Pulsed direct current, square-wave alternating current, alternating current, and direct current, at voltages similar to those currently in use for electrofishing, induced drift by Ameletus dissitus, Baetis spp., Cinygmula par, Hesperoperla pacifica, Psychoglypha subborealis, Hesperophylax occidentalis, and Epeorus longimanus under simulated stream conditions. Of nine species of insects shocked at these voltages, only Simulium jacumbae did not drift. There was an inverse relationship between the propensity of an individual to drift and the minimum level of voltage required to induce drift. Threshold body voltages varied among and within species at different body sizes and at different temperatures. Temporary reductions in productivity with potential loss of species will occur in areas that are electrofished so frequently that rates of insect displacement are greater than rates of insect recolonization." Meyer,MD; McCafferty,WP 2001 Hagen's small minnow mayfly (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae) in North America. Entomological News 112 (4) 255-263. Meyerhoff,RD 1991 Post-eruption recovery and secondary production of grazing insects in two streams near Mt. St. Helens. phd Thesis, Oregon State University. 217 pages. PDF Abstract: "The eruption of Mt. St. Helens provided the opportunity to study secondary production of grazing insects in the context of disturbance. Two stream sites were chosen that significantly differed in how their watersheds were impacted by the eruption. Clearwater Creek was catastrophically disturbed (physical alteration of habitat, loss of riparian vegetation, and abundant ashfall); Elk Creek was disturbed only by heavy ashfall. Secondary production of the insect community was estimated for 1985 and 1986. The relative importance of disturbance history and between-site habitat differences in determining secondary production was assessed by placing results in the context of ten years (1980-1989) of summer data from both streams. Few insects were found in Clearwater Creek four months after the eruption. In contrast, the community at Elk Creek was diverse and dominated by long-lived taxa. From 1980 to 1989 at Clearwater Creek there was a gradual shift from dominance by Chironomidae to an increasingly diverse community with an abundance of mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies. Disturbance from ash scour during the 1980-81 winter reset the benthos of Elk Creek. However, the recovery process in that stream after 1982 was rapid. The annual production of insects in 1985 was 9.7 g dry wt/m2 at Elk Creek and 8.6 g/m2 at Clearwater Creek. In 1986, production was higher at Clearwater Creek (27.4 g/m2) than at Elk Creek (16.3 g/m2). Aufwuchs grazers were the most important insects (ca. 75% of total insect production) of both streams in both years. After differences in assimilation efficiencies of food types were considered, it was found that 84.3% of grazer production at Clearwater Creek depended on algae as compared to 74.3% at Elk Creek. The disturbance history of each site was an important factor determining the insect community structure and the importance of grazers at each site. Consequently, secondary production in 1985-1986 was influenced to a large degree by the 1980 eruption. However, between-site differences in basin dimensions, substrate size, and riparian vegetation likely controlled the productive capacity of each stream." Milner,AM 1987 Colonization and ecological development of new streams in Glacier Bay National Park, Alaska. Freshwater Biology, 18(1), pp.53-70. Misof,B; Liu,S; Meusemann,K; Peters,RS; Donath,A; Mayer,C; Frandsen,PB; Ware,J; Flouri,T; Beutel,RG; Niehuis,O; et al. 2014 Phylogenomics resolves the timing and pattern of insect evolution. Science, 346(6210), pp.763-767. PDF Abstract: "Insects are the most speciose group of animals, but the phylogenetic relationships of many major lineages remain unresolved. We inferred the phylogeny of insects from 1478 protein-coding genes. Phylogenomic analyses of nucleotide and amino acid sequences, with site-specific nucleotide or domain-specific amino acid substitution models, produced statistically robust and congruent results resolving previously controversial phylogenetic relationships. We dated the origin of insects to the Early Ordovician [~479 million years ago (Ma)], of insect flight to the Early Devonian (~406 Ma), of major extant lineages to the Mississippian (~345 Ma), and the major diversification of holometabolous insects to the Early Cretaceous. Our phylogenomic study provides a comprehensive reliable scaffold for future comparative analyses of evolutionary innovations among insects." Mogren,CL and Trumble,JT 2010 The impacts of metals and metalloids on insect behavior. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 135: 1-17. Full Text Molles,MC and Pietruszka,RD 1983 Mechanisms of prey selection by predaceous stoneflies: roles of prey morphology, behavior and predator hunger. Oecologia 57(1) 25-31. Abstract Morihara,DK and McCafferty,WP 1979a The Baetis larvae of North America (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Transactions of American Entomological Society 105, 139-221. PDF
Morihara,DK and McCafferty,WP 1979b Systematics of the propinquus group of Baetis species (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 72, 130-135. PDF Morrissey,CA; Mineau,P; Devries,JH; Sanchez-Bayo,F; Liess,M; Cavallaro,MC and Liber,K 2015 Neonicotinoid contamination of global surface waters and associated risk to aquatic invertebrates: a review. Environment international, 74, pp.291-303. PDF Abstract: "Neonicotinoids, broad-spectrum systemic insecticides, are the fastest growing class of insecticides worldwide and are now registered for use on hundreds of field crops in over 120 different countries. The environmental profile of this class of pesticides indicate that they are persistent, have high leaching and runoff potential, and are highly toxic to a wide range of invertebrates. Therefore, neonicotinoids represent a significant risk to surface waters and the diverse aquatic and terrestrial fauna that these ecosystems support. This review synthesizes the current state of knowledge on the reported concentrations of neonicotinoids in surface waters from 29 studies in 9 countries world-wide in tandem with published data on their acute and chronic toxicity to 49 species of aquatic insects and crustaceans spanning 12 invertebrate orders. Strong evidence exists that water-borne neonicotinoid exposures are frequent, long-term and at levels (geometric means = 0.13 µg/L (averages) and 0.63 µg/L (maxima)) which commonly exceed several existing water quality guidelines. Imidacloprid is by far the most widely studied neonicotinoid (66% of the 214 toxicity tests reviewed) with differences in sensitivity among aquatic invertebrate species ranging several orders of magnitude; other neonicotinoids display analogous modes of action and similar toxicities, although comparative data are limited. Of the species evaluated, insects belonging to the orders Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and Diptera appear to be the most sensitive, while those of Crustacea (although not universally so) are less sensitive. In particular, the standard test species Daphnia magna appears to be very tolerant, with 24—96 hour LC50 values exceeding 100,000 µg/L (geometric mean > 44,000 µg/L), which is at least 2—3 orders of magnitude higher than the geometric mean of all other invertebrate species tested. Overall, neonicotinoids can exert adverse effects on survival, growth, emergence, mobility, and behavior of many sensitive aquatic invertebrate taxa at concentrations at or below 1 µg/L under acute exposure and 0.1 µg/L for chronic exposure. Using probabilistic approaches (species sensitivity distributions), we recommend here that ecological thresholds for neonicotinoid water concentrations need to be below 0.2 µg/L (short-term acute) or 0.035 µg/L (long-term chronic) to avoid lasting effects on aquatic invertebrate communities. The application of safety factors may still be warranted considering potential issues of slow recovery, additive or synergistic effects and multiple stressors that can occur in the field. Our analysis revealed that 81% (22/27) and 74% (14/19) of global surface water studies reporting maximum and average individual neonicotinoid concentrations respectively, exceeded these thresholds of 0.2 and 0.035 µg/L. Therefore, it appears that environmentally relevant concentrations of neonicotinoids in surface waters worldwide are well within the range where both short- and long-term impacts on aquatic invertebrate species are possible over broad spatial scales." Morton,SG; Schmidt,TS and Poff,NL 2022 Lack of evidence for indirect effects from stonefly predators on primary production under future climate warming scenarios. Ecoscience, 29(4), pp.283-291. PDF Abstract: "Consumptive and non-consumptive interactions of predators and prey can have strong direct and indirect effects on primary producers, such as stream algae. Increasing water temperatures may alter these interactions and thus influence productivity in streams. For each of 3 temperature treatments ('ambient', +2°C and +4°C), we measured the amount of algal biomass removed by grazing mayflies from 91 mesocosms after a 24-hour test period under 3 grazing treatments: lethal predators, non-lethal predators, and no predators. At all temperatures, grazers reduced algal biomass (p < 0.01), and the presence of lethal predators effectively dampened mayfly consumption of algae (p < 0.01). However, differences in algal biomass between lethal and non-lethal predator treatments were not significant, indicating that predators had no indirect behaviorally mediated effects on grazer consumption. Grazer removal of algal biomass marginally increased with increasing temperature (p = 0.051). We analyzed video data for changes in grazer foraging and drift behavior. Mayflies increased drift in the presence of lethal predators (p < 0.01) but not non-lethal predators, and no behavioral changes were seen with temperature increases. Mesocosms can help elucidate possible future shifts in trophic interactions due to climate warming. Yet, we found no evidence of indirect stonefly predator effects on grazing mayflies under these warming scenarios." NNeedham,JG 1905. Ephemeridae. Bulletin of the New York State Museum 86:17-62, pl. 4-12. Needham,JG 1908 New data concerning May flies and dragon flies of New York. May flies (Ephemeridae). Bulletin of the New York State Museum 1907:188-194. Ephemerella dorothea Description Needham,JG 1927 The Rocky Mountain species of the mayfly genus Ephemerella. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 20:107-117. Needham,JG; Traver,JR; Hsu,Y-C 1935 The Biology of Mayflies. Comstock Publishing Company, Inc, Ithaca, New York. 759 pages. Nehring,RB 1976 Aquatic insects as biological monitors of heavy metal pollution. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 15 2, 147-154. Nelson,SM and Roline,RA 1993 Selection of the mayfly Rhithrogena hageni as an indicator of metal pollution in the Upper Arkansas River. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 8(2):111-119. PDF Nelson,SM and Roline,RA 1996 Recovery of stream macroinvertebrates community from mine drainage disturbance. Hydrobiologia 339, 73-84. Nelson,SM and Roline,RA 1999 Relationships between metals and hyporheic invertebrate community structure in a river recovering from metals contamination. Hydrobiologia 397, 211-226. Abstract They studied the Arkansas River above (surface) and 30 cm below the streambed (hyporheic) macroinvertebrate community before and after a water treatment plant was installed to clean up the Leadville Mine Drainage Tunnel effluent in 1992. Having to contend with issues such as the usual annual variation in insect communities they used some fancy math (correspondance analysis) to intepret changes due to cleaner water. They found the water treatment plant cleaned up the surface water the quickest, with the hyporheic zone showing recovery after several years. The hyporheic community fluctuated, with a lower than expected species richness and abundance in 1995 after the water treatment plant was installed. The authors suspect this was because of the large spring runoff in 1995. Substrate (macroinvertebrates prefer more rocks and less sand), discharge, as well as upwelling and downwelling affected community structure too. Metal concentrations in the hyporheic were different from the surface. Quote from page 222: "The continued remobilization of metals into the hyporheic may still be affecting October hyporheic community, even seven years after initiation of water treatment." Newell,RL and Hossack,BR 2009 Large, wetland-associated mayflies (Ephemeroptera) of Glacier National Park, Montana. Western North American Naturalist, 69(3) 335-342. Abstract and PDF Newell,RL and Minshall,GW 1978 Effect of temperature on the hatching time of Tricorythodes minutus (Ephemeroptera: Tricorythidae). J. Kans. Ent. Soc. 51:504-506. Newell,RT and Minshall,GW 1978 Life history of a multivoltine mayfly, Tricorythodes minutus: an example of the effect of temperature on the life cycle. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 71:876-881. OOgden,TH; Gattolliat,JL; Sartori,M; Staniczek,AH; Soldán,T and Whiting,MF 2009 Towards a new paradigm in mayfly phylogeny (Ephemeroptera): combined analysis of morphological and molecular data. Systematic Entomology, 34(4), pp.616-634. PDF Abstract: "This study represents the first formal morphological and combined (morphological and molecular) phylogenetic analyses of the order Ephemeroptera. Taxonomic sampling comprised 112 species in 107 genera, including 42 recognized families (all major lineages of Ephemeroptera). Morphological data consisted of 101 morphological characters. Molecular data were acquired from DNA sequences of the 12S, 16S, 18S, 28S and H3 genes. The Asian genus Siphluriscus (Siphluriscidae) was supported as sister to all other mayflies. The lineages Carapacea, Furcatergalia, Fossoriae, Pannota, Caenoidea and Ephemerelloidea were supported as monophyletic, as were many of the families. However, some recognized families (for example, Ameletopsidae and Coloburiscidae) and major lineages (such as Setisura, Pisciforma and Ephemeroidea among others) were not supported as monophyletic, mainly due to convergences within nymphal characters. Clade robustness was evaluated by multiple methods and approaches." Ogden,TH; Osborne,JT; Jacobus,LM and Whiting,MF 2009 Combined molecular and morphological phylogeny of Ephemerellinae (Ephemerellidae: Ephemeroptera), with remarks about classification. Zootaxa, 1991(1), pp.28-42. PDF Abstract: "This study represents the first combined molecular and morphological analysis for the mayfly family Ephemerellidae (Ephemeroptera), with a focus on the relationships of genera and species groups of the subfamily Ephemerellinae. The phylogeny was constructed based on DNA sequence data from 3 nuclear (18S rDNA, 28S rDNA, histone H3) and 2 mitochondrial (12S rDNA, 16S rDNA) genes, and 23 morphological characters. Taxon sampling for Ephemerellidae included exemplars from all 25 extant genus groups and additional representatives from those genera with the highest diversity. Ephemerellidae appears to consist of three major clades. Ephemerella, the largest genus of Ephemerellidae, and Serratella were not supported as monophyletic, and each had representatives in two of the three major clades. However, the genera Drunella and Cincticostella were supported as monophyletic. Lineages strongly supported as monophyletic include a grouping of the Timpanoginae genera Timpanoga, Dannella, Dentatella and Eurylophella, and groupings of the Ephemerellinae genera Torleya, Hyrtanella and Crinitella and the genera Kangella, Uracanthella and Teloganopsis. The placement of the Timpanoginae genus Attenella fell within Ephemerellinae, based on molecular and combined data, but it grouped with other Timpanoginae based on morphological data alone. Further study and analysis of Ephemerellidae morphology is needed, and classification should be revised, if it is to reflect phylogenetic relationships." Ogden,TH and Whiting,MF 2005 Phylogeny of Ephemeroptera (mayflies) based on molecular evidence. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 37(3), pp.625-643. PDF Abstract: "This study represents the first molecular phylogeny for the Order Ephemeroptera. The analyses included 31 of the 37 families, representing ∼24% of the genera. Fifteen families were supported as being monophyletic, five families were supported as nonmonophyletic, and 11 families were only represented by one species, and monophyly was not testable. The suborders Furcatergalia and Carapacea were supported as monophyletic while Setisura and Pisciforma were not supported as monophyletic. The superfamilies Ephemerelloidea and Caenoidea were supported as monophyletic while Baetoidea, Siphlonuroidea, Ephemeroidea, and Heptagenioidea were not. Baetidae was recovered as sister to the remaining clades. The mayfly gill to wing origin hypothesis was not supported nor refuted by these data. Mandibular tusks were supported as having at least one loss in Behningiidae and, together with the burrowing lifestyle, possibly two origins. The fishlike body form was supported as plesiomorphic for mayflies with multiple secondary losses. Topological sensitivity analysis was used as a tool to examine patterns concerning the stability of relationships across a parameter landscape, providing additional information that may not have been acquired otherwise." PPeckarsky,BL 1980a Influence of detritus on colonization of stream invertebrates. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37, 957-963. Peckarsky,BL 1980b Predator-prey interactions between stoneflies and mayflies: Behavioral observations. Ecology 61 4, 932-943. PDF Peckarsky,BL 1983 Biotic interactions or abiotic limitations? A model of lotic community structure. In: Dynamics of Lotic Ecosystems. Eds: Fontaine III,Thomas D; Bartell,Steven M Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 303-323. PDF Peckarsky,BL 1985 Do predaceous stoneflies and siltation affect the structure of stream insect communities colonizing enclosures? Canadian Journal of Zoology 63, 1519-1530. PDF Peckarsky,BL 1986 Colonization of natural substrates by stream benthos. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43, 700-709. PDF Peckarsky,BL 1987a Mayfly cerci as defense against stonefly predation: deflection and detection. Oikos 48 2, 161-170. PDF Peckarsky,BL 1988 Why predaceous stoneflies do not aggregate with their prey. Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie Verhandlungen 23, 2135-2140. Peckarsky,BL 1990 Habitat selection by stream-dwelling predatory stoneflies. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 48, 1069-1076. Peckarsky,BL 1991a A field test of resource depression by predatory stonefly larvae. Oikos 61 1, 3-10. Peckarsky,BL 1991b Is there a coevolutionary arms race between predators and prey? A case study with stoneflies and mayflies. Advances in Ecology 1, 167-180. Peckarsky,BL 1996 Alternative predator avoidance syndromes of stream-dwelling mayfly larvae. Ecology 77(6) 1888-1905.Abstract PDF Peckarsky,BL; Cook,KZ 1981 Effect of Keystone mine effluent on colonization of stream benthos. Environmental Entomology 10, 864-871. Peckarsky,BL; Cowan,CA 1995 Microhabitat and activity periodicity of predatory stoneflies and their mayfly prey in a western Colorado stream. Oikos 74(3) 513-521. PDF Peckarsky,BL; Cowan,CA; Anderson,CR 1994 Consequences and plasticity of the specialized predatory behavior of stream-dwelling stonefly larvae. Ecology 75 1, 166-181. PDF Peckarsky, B.L., C.A. Cowan, M.A. Penton and C. Anderson. 1993 Sublethal consequences of stream-dwelling predatory stoneflies on mayfly growth and fecundity. Ecology 74(6):1836-1846. Abstract PDF Peckarsky,BL; Dodson,SI 1980a Do stonefly predators influence benthic distributions in streams? Ecology 61 6, 1275-1282. PDF Peckarsky,BL; Dodson,SI 1980b An experimental analysis of biological factors contributing to stream community structure. Ecology 61 6, 1283-1290. PDF Peckarsky,BL; Dodson,SI; Conklin,DJ 1985 A key to the aquatic insects of streams in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountain Biological Lab, including chironomid larvae from streams and ponds. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver CO. 47 pages. Peckarsky,BL, Encalada,AC and McIntosh, AR 2011 Why do vulnerable mayflies thrive in trout streams? American Entomologist 57(3)152-164. Peckarsky,BL; Fraissinet,PR; Penton,MA; Conklin Jr.,DJ 1990 Freshwater Macroinvertebrates of Northeastern North America. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. 442 pages. While not local, it works pretty well to the genus level, useful as another tool on the shelf when stuck on a bug identification. Peckarsky,BL; Hughes,JM; Mather,PB; Hillyer,M; Encalada,AC 2005 Are populations of mayflies living in adjacent fish and fishless streams genetically differentiated? Freshwater Biology 50(1), 42-51. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2004.01292.x Abstract PDF Peckarsky,BL, Kerans,B; Taylor,BW and McIntosh,AR. 2008 Predator effects on prey population dynamics in open systems. Oecologia. Peckarsky,BL; McIntosh,AR 1998 Fitness and community consequences of avoiding multiple predators. Oecologia 113, 565-576. PDF Peckarsky,BL; McIntosh,AR; Àlvarez,M and Moslemi,JM 2013 Nutrient limitation controls the strength of behavioral trophic cascades in high elevation streams. Ecosphere, 4(9)1-17. PDF Peckarsky,BL; McIntosh,AR; Àlvarez,M and Moslemi,JM 2015 Disturbance legacies and nutrient limitation influence interactions between grazers and algae in high elevation streams. Ecosphere, 6(11), art241. PDF Peckarsky,BL; McIntosh,AR; Caudill,CC; Dahl,J 2002 Swarming and mating behavior of a mayfly Baetis bicaudatus suggest stabilizing selection for male body size. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 51, 530-537. PDF Peckarsky,BL; McIntosh,AR; Taylor,BW and Dahl,J 2002 Predator chemicals induce changes in mayfly life history traits: a whole stream manipulation. Ecology 83 3, 612-618. PDF Peckarsky,BL and Penton,MA 1989 Mechanisms of prey selection by stream-dwelling stonefly nymphs. Ecology 70(5) 1203-1218. Abstract Peckarsky,BL; Taylor,BW and Caudill,CC 2000 Hydrologic and behavioral constraints on oviposition of stream insects: implications for adult dispersal. Oecologia 125, 186-200. PDF Peckarsky,BL; Taylor,BW; McIntosh,AR; McPeek,MA and Lytle,DA 2001 Variation in mayfly size at metamorphosis as a developmental response to risk of predation. Ecology 82, 740-757. Abstract Pennack,RW 1978 Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States. 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY. 803 pages. Pennuto,CM and deNoyelles Jr,F 1993 Behavioral responses of Drunella coloradensis (Ephemeroptera) nymphs to short-term pH reductions. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 50, 2692-2697. Perry,SA; Perry,WB and Stanford,JA 1986. Effects of stream regulation on density, growth, and emergence of two mayflies (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae) and a caddisfly (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae) in two Rocky Mountain rivers (U.S.A.). Canadian Journal of Zoology 64(3):656-666. Peters,WL 1988. Origins of the North American Ephemeroptera fauna, especially the Leptophlebiidae). Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada 144:13-24. Peters,WL and Edmunds Jr,GF 1961 The mayflies (Ephemeroptera) of the Navajo Reservoir Basin, New Mexico and Colorado. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, No. 55, Upper Colorado Series, No. 5, pp. Petrin,Z 2011 Species traits predict assembly of mayfly and stonefly communities along pH gradients. Oecologia, 167(2), 513-524. Abstract Abstract: " Much recent ecological research has centred on the interrelations between species diversity and ecological processes. In the present study, I show how species traits may aid in comprehending ecology by studying the link between an environmental variable and functional traits. I examined the composition of species traits with a theoretically underpinned relationship to ecological processes along a pH gradient. I focused on body size, reproductive output, life cycle length and feeding habit of mayflies and stoneflies. In mayfly assemblages, I found smaller body size, greater reproductive output, faster life cycles and a larger proportion of gathering collectors and scrapers with increasing pH. In stonefly assemblages, I found smaller body size, greater reproductive output and faster life cycles at sites with a history of long-term natural acidification, but no clear trends in feeding habits and in most traits where acidification is anthropogenic. The results suggest that mayflies and stoneflies exhibit different ecological functions following different ecological strategies. Mayflies follow an opportunistic strategy relative to stoneflies, likely facilitating high rates of ecological processes with respect to the autotrophic resource base at neutral sites. Relative to mayflies, stoneflies follow an equilibrium strategy contributing to ecological functioning in heterotrophic ecosystems and likely maintaining heterotrophic processes despite the erosion of species diversity in response to acidification. The rules governing an ecological community may be more readily revealed by studying the distribution of species traits instead of species diversity; by studying traits, we are likely to improve our understanding of the workings of ecological communities. " Ploskey,GR and Brown,AV 1980 Downstream drift of the mayfly Baetis flavistriga as a passive phenonmenon. American Midland Naturalist 104:405-409. PDF Poff,NL; Olden,JD; Viera,NKM; Finn,DS; Simmons,MP; Kondratieff,BC 2006 Functional trait niches of American lotic insects: traits-based ecological applications in light of phylogenetic relationships. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 25 (4) 730-755. PDF Abstract: "The use of species traits to characterize the functional composition of benthic invertebrate communities has become well established in the ecological literature. This approach holds much potential for predicting changes of both species and species assemblages along environmental gradients in terms of traits that are sensitive to local environmental conditions. Further, in the burgeoning field of biomonitoring, a functional approach provides a predictive basis for understanding community-level responses along gradients of environmental alteration caused by humans. Despite much progress in recent years, the full potential of the functional traits-based approach is currently limited by several factors, both conceptual and methodological. Most notably, we lack adequate understanding of how individual traits are intercorrelated and how this lack of independence among traits reflects phylogenetic (evolutionary) constraint. A better understanding is needed if we are to make the transition from a largely univariate approach that considers single-trait responses along single environmental gradients to a multivariate one that more realistically accounts for the responses of many traits across multiple environmental gradients characteristic of most human-dominated landscapes. Our primary objective in this paper is to explore the issue of inter-trait correlations for lotic insects and to identify opportunities and challenges for advancing the theory and application of traits-based approaches in stream community ecology. We created a new database on species-trait composition of North American lotic insects. Using published accounts and expert opinion, we collected information on 20 species traits (in 59 trait states) that fell into 4 broad categories: life-history, morphological, mobility, and ecological. First, we demonstrate the importance of considering how the linkage of specific trait states within a taxon is critical to developing a more-robust traits-based community ecology. Second, we examine the statistical correlations among traits and trait states for the 311 taxa to identify trait syndromes and specify which traits provide unique (uncorrelated) information that can be used to guide trait selection in ecological studies. Third, we examine the evolutionary associations among traits by mapping trait states onto a phylogentic tree derived from morphological and molecular analyses and classifications from the literature. We examine the evolutionary lability of individual traits by assessing the extent to which they are unconstrained by phylogenic relationships across the taxa. By focusing on the lability of traits within lotic genera of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera, taxa often used as water-quality indicators, we show how a traits-based approach can allow a priori expectations of the differential response of these taxa to specific environmental gradients. We conclude with some ideas about how specific trait linkages, statistical correlations among traits, and evolutionary lability of traits can be used in combination with a mechanistic understanding of trait response along environmental gradients to select robust traits useful for a more predictive community ecology. We indicate how these new insights can direct the research in statistical modeling that is necessary to achieve the full potential of models that can predict how multiple traits will respond along multiple environmental gradients." Poff,NL and Ward,JV 1988 Use of occupied Glossosoma verdona (Trichoptera: Glossosomatidae) cases by early instars of Baetis spp.(Ephemeroptera: Baetidae) in a Rocky Mountain stream. Entomological news (USA). Poff,NL and Ward,JV 1991 Drift responses of benthic invertebrates to experimental streamflow variation in a hydrologically stable stream. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 48(10): 1926-1936. Poff,NL; Wellnitz,T; Monroe,JB 2003 Redundancy among three herbivorous insects across an experimental current velocity gradient. Oecologia 134, 262-269. PDF Pritchard,G; Zloty,J 1994 Life histories of two Ameletus mayflies (Ephemeroptera) in two mountain streams: the influence of temperature, body size, and parasitism. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 13 4, 557-568. Provonsha,AV 1990 A revision of the genus Caenis in North America (Ephemeroptera: Caenidae). Transactions of American Entomological Society 116, 801-884. Prusha,BA and Clements,WH 2004 Landscape attributes, dissolved organic C, and metal bioaccumulation in aquatic macroinvertebrates (Arkansas River Basin, Colorado). Journal of the North American Benthological Society 23 2, 327-339. QRRaddum,G; Fjellheim,A and Velle,G 1980 Increased growth and distribution of Ephemerella aurivillii (Ephemeroptera) after hydropower regulation of the Aurland catchment in Western Norway. River Research and Applications 24:688-697. Rader RB. 1997 A functional classification of the drift: traits that influence invertebrate availability to salmonids. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54:1211-1234. Rader RB; Ward JV. 1987 Mayfly production in a Colorado mountain stream: an assessment of methods for synchronous and non-synchronous species. Hydrobiologia 148:145-150. Rader RB; Ward JV. 1988 Influence of regulation on environmental conditions and the macroinvertebrate community in the upper Colorado River. Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 2:597-618. PDF Rader RB; Ward JV. 1989 Influence of impoundments on mayfly diets, life histories, and production. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 8:64-73. Rader RB; Ward JV. 1989 The influence of environmental predictability/disturbance characteristics on the structure of a guild of mountain stream insects. Oikos 54:107-116. Rader RB; Ward JV. 1990 Diel migration and microhabitat distribution of a benthic stream assemblage. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47:711-718. Rader RB; Ward JV. 1990 Mayfly growth and population density in constant and variable temperature regimes. Great Basin Naturalist 50:97-106. Radford, DS and Hartlan-Rowe,R 1971 The life cycles of some stream insects (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera) in Alberta. Canadian Entomologist 103: 609-617. Randolph,RP; McCafferty,WP 1996 First larval descriptions of two species of Paraleptophlebia (Ephemeroptera: Leptophlebiidae). American Midland Naturalist 107 4, 225-229. Richards C; Minshall GW. 1988. The influence of periphyton abundance on Baetis bicaudatus distribution and colonization in a small stream. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 7(2):77-86. Riddell DJ, Culp JM; Baird,DJ 2005 Behavioral responses to sublethal cadmium exposure within an experimental aquatic food web. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 24: 431-441. Roline,R 1988 The effects of heavy metals pollution of the upper Arkansas River on the distribution of aquatic macroinvertebrates. Hydrobiologia 160: 3-8. They sampled the Arkansas River upstream and downstream of mine drainage and clean water inputs in 1979 and 1980. After compositing 3 surber samplers in the field, they identified the macroinvertebrates to genus level and used a diversity index to evaluate the health of the macroinvertebrate community. Higher diversity is better. Diversity decreased downstream of heavy metal pollution from the Leadville Drain and California Gulch and increased downstream of clean water inputs. Rowe,L; Hudson,J and Berrill,M 1988 Hatching success of mayfly eggs at low pH. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 45:1649-1652. SSánchez-Bayo,F and Wyckhuys,KA 2019 Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Biological conservation, 232, pp.8-27. PDF Abstract: "Biodiversity of insects is threatened worldwide. Here, we present a comprehensive review of 73 historical reports of insect declines from across the globe, and systematically assess the underlying drivers. Our work reveals dramatic rates of decline that may lead to the extinction of 40% of the world's insect species over the next few decades. In terrestrial ecosystems, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and dung beetles (Coleoptera) appear to be the taxa most affected, whereas four major aquatic taxa (Odonata, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Ephemeroptera) have already lost a considerable proportion of species. Affected insect groups not only include specialists that occupy particular ecological niches, but also many common and generalist species. Concurrently, the abundance of a small number of species is increasing; these are all adaptable, generalist species that are occupying the vacant niches left by the ones declining. Among aquatic insects, habitat and dietary generalists, and pollutant-tolerant species are replacing the large biodiversity losses experienced in waters within agricultural and urban settings. The main drivers of species declines appear to be in order of importance: i) habitat loss and conversion to intensive agriculture and urbanisation; ii) pollution, mainly that by synthetic pesticides and fertilisers; iii) biological factors, including pathogens and introduced species; and iv) climate change. The latter factor is particularly important in tropical regions, but only affects a minority of species in colder climes and mountain settings of temperate zones. A rethinking of current agricultural practices, in particular a serious reduction in pesticide usage and its substitution with more sustainable, ecologically-based practices, is urgently needed to slow or reverse current trends, allow the recovery of declining insect populations and safeguard the vital ecosystem services they provide. In addition, effective remediation technologies should be applied to clean polluted waters in both agricultural and urban environments." Sartori,M and Brittain,JE 2015 Order Ephemeroptera. In Thorp and Covich's freshwater invertebrates (pp. 873-891). Academic Press. PDF Brief History and Paleontology: "Extant Ephemeroptera represent what is left of a much diversified group of primitive flying insects (Ephemerida), the origin of which goes back to the Carboniferous. Permian data confirm that the group was already present at the end of the Paleozoic. Ephemerida reached their greatest diversity during the Mesozoic, mainly in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. All of these species share the presence of a costal brace at the base of the forewing and a reduction in the anal region of the hindwing with modern mayflies. However, contrary to them, they had homonomous wings (i.e., fore- and hind-wing of the same size), and their aquatic stages could possess up to nine pairs of abdominal gills (compared with a maximum of seven in extant species). Some species also had a wing span over 90 mm. All of these lineages, including Permoplectoptera (e.g., Protereismatidae or Misthodotidae), went extinct by the end of the late Jurassic. A recent study described adults and nymphs of a peculiar fossil insect order, the Coxoplectoptera, which could be the true sister group of modern Ephemeroptera (Staniczek et al.,2011). Although the adults have homonomous wings, the nymphs possess seven pair of gills as in the modern mayflies, a single tarsal segment (compared with five tarsal segments in the nymphs of Protereismatidae), and a single pretarsal claw (compared with paired claws in Proteiresmatidae). Heteronomous mayflies with reduced hindwings had appeared by the end of the Jurassic. The Tertiary fauna, as documented by fossils in Baltic or Dominican amber, is definitely contemporary with the presence of extinct and living genera of modern families." Shapas,TJ and Hilsenhoff,WL 1976 Feeding habits of Wisconsin's predominant lotic Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera. Great Lakes Entomologist 9, 175-188. Short,RA 1983 Food habits and dietary overlap among six stream collector species. Freshwater Invertebrate Biology 2:132-138. PDF Short,RA and Ward,JV 1980 Macroinvertebrates of a Colorado high mountain stream. The Southwestern Naturalist, 23-32. PDF Sibley,PK; Kaushik, NK and Kreutzweiser,DP 1991 Impact of a pulse application of permethrin on the macroinvertebrate community of a headwater stream Environmental Pollution 70(1)35-55. Sinitshenkova,ND and Grimaldi,D 2000 New Jersey amber mayflies: the first North American Mesozoic members of the order (Insecta; Ephemeroptera). Studies on Fossils in Amber, with Particular Reference to the Cretaceous of New Jersey. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands, pp.111-125. PDF Abstract: "The following new genera and species of mayflies are described from Upper Cretaceous (Turonian) amber from Sayreville, New Jersey, U.S.A: Cretomitarcys luzzii (imago male), (Polymitarcyidae: Cretomitarcyinae, new subfamily), Borephemera goldmani (imago male, Australiphemeridae), Amerogenia macrops (imago female) (Heptageniidae) and Palaeometropus cassus (subadult male) (Ametropodidae). Previously no mayflies were described from the Mesozoic of North America. Ametropodidae and Heptageniidae are newly recorded for the Mesozoic, and Australiphemeridae for the Upper Cretaceous. The mayflies in this amber probably inhabited a medium-sized or large river. Zoogeography of Upper Cretaceous mayflies is briefly discussed; with particular emphasis on significant faunistic differences between the temperate and subtropical areas." Slater,J; Kondratieff,BC 2004 A review of the mayfly genus Cinygmula McDunnough (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae) in Colorado. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 77 2, 121-126. PDF Sproul,JS; Houston,DD; Davis,N; Barrington,E; Oh,SY; Evans,RP and Shiozawa,DK 2014 Comparative phylogeography of codistributed aquatic insects in western North America: insights into dispersal and regional patterns of genetic structure. Freshwater Biology, 59(10), pp.2051-2063. Sroka,P; Godunko,RJ; Sinitshenkova,ND and Prokop,J 2021 Life history, systematics and flight ability of the Early Permian stem-mayflies in the genus Misthodotes Sellards, 1909 (Insecta, Ephemerida, Permoplectoptera). BMC Ecology and Evolution, 21, pp.1-18. HTML Stanford JA and Gaufin AR. 1974 Hyporheic communities of two Montana rivers. Science 185:700-702. Abstract: Collections of stream organisms from a domestic water supply system adjacent to the Tobacco River revealed that a detritus-based community exists in subterranean waters circulating through floodplain gravels at least 4.2 meters below and 50 meters laterally from the river channel. Several stone fly species spend their entire nymphal life cycles in underground habitats of the Tobacco and Flathead rivers. Stanford,JA; Ward,JV 1985 The effects of regulation on the limnology of the Gunnison River: A North American case history. In: Regulated Rivers. Eds: Lillehammer,A; Saltveit,S Universitetsforlaget As., Oslo, Norway, 467-480. Staniczek,AH; Bechly,G and Godunko,RJ 2011 Coxoplectoptera, a new fossil order of Palaeoptera (Arthropoda: Insecta), with comments on the phylogeny of the stem group of mayflies (Ephemeroptera). Insect Systematics and Evolution, 42(2), p.101. PDF Stark,JD and Banks,JE 2003 Population-level effects of pesticides and other toxicants on arthropods. Annual Review of Entomology 48:505-19. Stewart,KW and Szczytko,SW 1983 Drift of Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera in two Colorado rivers. Freshwater Invertebrate Biology. 2(3)117-131. PDF Stitt,RP Rockwell,RW Legg,DE and Lockwood,JA 2006 Evaluation of Cinygmula (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae) Drift Behavior as an Indicator of Aqueous Copper Contamination. Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 67(2) 102-108. Abstract Stoaks,RD and Kondratieff,BC 2014 The aquatic macroinvertebrates of a first order Colorado, USA Front Range stream: what could the biodiversity have been before irrigated agriculture?. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 87(1), pp.47-65. PDF Sun,L; Sabo,A; Meyer,MD; Randolph,RP; Jacobus,LM; McCafferty,WP and Ferris,VR 2006 Tests of current hypotheses of mayfly (Ephemeroptera) phylogeny using molecular (18s rDNA) data. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 99(2), pp.241-252. PDF Abstract: "Partial 18s rDNA sequences from 22 exemplar mayfly species (Ephemeroptera) representing 20 families were analyzed to obtain a best phylogenetic tree for comparison to previous phylogenetic hypotheses. With respect to relationships among the three major groupings, our molecular data support the hypothesis that Pisciforma and Setisura comprise a monophyletic sister group to the Furcatergalia, rather than the hypothesis that Setisura and Furcatergalia comprise a monophyletic group stemming from the Pisciforma. Within Pisciforma, acceptable trees show that Baetidae separates at the base of the Pisciforma clade. The data suggest that Pisciforma is paraphyletic and do not support the grouping of all Southern hemisphere families as a monophyletic group. An evolutionary sequence favored by the data suggests a grouping of Siphlonuridae, Rallidentidae, Nesameletidae, and Ameletidae and a grouping of Oniscigastridae, Ameletopsidae, and Acanthametropodidae. The data support the monophyly of Setisura (Heptageniidae, Arthropleidae, Pseudironidae, Oligoneuriidae, Isonychiidae, and Coloburiscidae). Within Setisura, a bootstrap/jackknife test places the families Heptageniidae, Arthropleidae, and Pseudironidae in one clade at 100% frequency. Also supported are hypotheses that Pseudironidae is a sister group to a Heptageniidae-Arthropleidae group and that a sister relationship exists between the latter two families. Hypotheses that Pseudironidae separated from other Setisura families at an earlier stage and comprises a sister group to a Heptageniidae-Oligonuriidae lineage or that Pseudironidae should be moved out of Setisura are not supported." TTaylor,BW; McIntosh,AR and Peckarsky,BL 2002 Reach-scale manipulations show invertebrate grazers depress algal resources in streams. Limnology and Oceanography 47 (3) 893-899. PDF Taylor,BW; McIntosh,AR and Peckarsky,BL 2001 Sampling stream invertebrates using electroshocking techniques: implications for basic and applied research. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 58(3), pp.437-445. PDF Abstract: "We present a new technique using electrofishing equipment to collect and quantitatively sample stream invertebrates. We used an electrofishing machine with a small anode to produce a localized field of pulsed direct current to induce invertebrate drift. We quickly obtained large numbers of live invertebrates for experiments by passing the anode over the stream bottom upstream of sampling nets. We compared the results of five techniques: (i) electroshocking inside a modified Hess sampler, (ii) repeated electroshocking over a large area to estimate population size by depletion, (iii) traditional Surber, (iv) Hess, and (v) individual stone sampling. Electroshocking techniques provided estimates of invertebrate density comparable with those of traditional sampling techniques. The electroshocking depletion method that sampled a large area provided higher measures of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera richness. Hess and area-restricted electrobug methods had similar density and diversity estimates, whereas the Surber sampler provided low density estimates, especially for mobile taxa. Density estimates from individual stones were inflated, were biased for mayflies, and had low richness. Samples taken with the electroshocking method were processed 40% faster because these samples contained little detritus. Electroshocking techniques can provide accurate estimates of population size and diversity, minimize disturbance to benthic habitats, and reduce processing time." Torres-Ruiz,M, Wehr,JD and Perrone,AA. 2007 Trophic relations in a stream food web: importance of fatty acids for macroinvertebrate consumers. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 26: 509-522. Abstract Traver,JR 1935 Two new genera of North American Heptageniidae (Ephemerida). Canadian Entomologist 67:31-38. Abstract: "Through the courtesy of Dr. McDunnough, I have recently been permitted to study many specimens of mayflies allied to the genus Iron, which were collected in Western Canada. Imagoes of both sexes and correctly associated nymphs of several species were included in the material, which was loaned to me from the Canadian National Collection. A study of these specimens, together with others in the Cornell University Collection, convinces me that two new genera are represented, which I designate respectively as Ironodes and Ironpsis." Traver,JR 1935 Part II, Systematic. In: The Biology of Mayflies with a Systematic Account of North American Species. Eds: Needham,JG; Traver,JR; Hsu,YC Comstock Publications, Ithaca, New York, 239-739. Tronstad,LM; Hotaling,S; Giersch,JJ; Wilmot,OJ and Finn,DS 2020 Headwaters fed by subterranean ice: potential climate refugia for mountain stream communities? Western North American Naturalist, 80(3), pp.395-407. PDF UUlmer,G 1920 Neue Ephemeropteren. Arch. Naturgesch. 85(abt. A 11):1-80. Georg Ulmer at Wikipedia Usinger,RL ed., 1956 Aquatic insects of California: with keys to North American genera and California species. Univ of California Press. VVan Dijk,TC; Van Staalduinen,MA and Van der Sluijs,JP 2013 Macro-invertebrate decline in surface water polluted with imidacloprid. PloS one, 8(5), p.e62374. PDF Abstract: "Imidacloprid is one of the most widely used insecticides in the world. Its concentration in surface water exceeds the water quality norms in many parts of the Netherlands. Several studies have demonstrated harmful effects of this neonicotinoid to a wide range of non-target species. Therefore we expected that surface water pollution with imidacloprid would negatively impact aquatic ecosystems. Availability of extensive monitoring data on the abundance of aquatic macro-invertebrate species, and on imidacloprid concentrations in surface water in the Netherlands enabled us to test this hypothesis. Our regression analysis showed a significant negative relationship (P<0.001) between macro-invertebrate abundance and imidacloprid concentration for all species pooled. A significant negative relationship was also found for the orders Amphipoda, Basommatophora, Diptera, Ephemeroptera and Isopoda, and for several species separately. The order Odonata had a negative relationship very close to the significance threshold of 0.05 (P = 0.051). However, in accordance with previous research, a positive relationship was found for the order Actinedida. We used the monitoring field data to test whether the existing three water quality norms for imidacloprid in the Netherlands are protective in real conditions. Our data show that macrofauna abundance drops sharply between 13 and 67 ng l—1. For aquatic ecosystem protection, two of the norms are not protective at all while the strictest norm of 13 ng l—1 (MTR) seems somewhat protective. In addition to the existing experimental evidence on the negative effects of imidacloprid on invertebrate life, our study, based on data from large-scale field monitoring during multiple years, shows that serious concern about the far-reaching consequences of the abundant use of imidacloprid for aquatic ecosystems is justified." Vijver,MG and van den Brink,PJ 2014 Macro-invertebrate decline in surface water polluted with imidacloprid: a rebuttal and some new analyses. PLoS One, 9(2), p.e89837. PDF Abstract: "Imidacloprid, the largest selling insecticide in the world, has received particular attention from scientists, policymakers and industries due to its potential toxicity to bees and aquatic organisms. The decline of aquatic macro-invertebrates due to imidacloprid concentrations in the Dutch surface waters was hypothesised in a recent paper by Van Dijk, Van Staalduinen and Van der Sluijs (PLOS ONE, May 2013). Although we do not disagree with imidacloprid's inherent toxicity to aquatic organisms, we have fundamental concerns regarding the way the data were analysed and interpreted. Here, we demonstrate that the underlying toxicity of imidacloprid in the field situation cannot be understood except in the context of other co-occurring pesticides. Although we agree with Van Dijk and co-workers that effects of imidacloprid can emerge between 13 and 67 ng/L we use a different line of evidence. We present an alternative approach to link imidacloprid concentrations and biological data. We analysed the national set of chemical monitoring data of the year 2009 to estimate the relative contribution of imidacloprid compared to other pesticides in relation to environmental quality target and chronic ecotoxicity threshold exceedances. Moreover, we assessed the relative impact of imidacloprid on the pesticide-induced potential affected fractions of the aquatic communities. We conclude that by choosing to test a starting hypothesis using insufficient data on chemistry and biology that are difficult to link, and by ignoring potential collinear effects of other pesticides present in Dutch surface waters Van Dijk and co-workers do not provide direct evidence that reduced taxon richness and abundance of macroinvertebrates can be attributed to the presence of imidacloprid only. Using a different line of evidence we expect ecological effects of imidacloprid at some of the exposure profiles measured in 2009 in the surface waters of the Netherlands." Vance,SA and Peckarsky,BL 1996 The infection of nymphal Baetis bicaudatus by the mermithid nematode Gasteromermis sp. Ecological Entomology 21, 377-381. Vance,SA 1996 The effect of the mermithid parasite Gasteromermis sp. (Nematoda: Mermithidae) on the drift behaviour of its mayfly host, Baetis bicaudatus (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae): a tradeoff between avoiding predators and locating food. Canadian Journal of Zoology 74, 1907-1913. Vance,SA; Peckarsky,BL 1997 The effect of mermithid parasitism on predation of nymphal Baetis bicaudatus (Ephemeroptera) by invertebrates. Oecologia 110, 147-152. Vance,SA 1996 Morphological and behavioural sex reversal in mermithid-infected mayflies. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 263, 907-912. Vannote,RL and Sweeney,BW 1980 Geographic analysis of thermal quilibria: a conceptual model for evaluating the effect of natural and modified thermal regimes on aquatic insect communities. The American Naturalist 115 (5), 667-695. Vieira,NKM; Poff,Nl; Carlisle,DM; Moulton,SR II; Koski,ML and Kondratieff,BC 2006, A database of lotic invertebrate traits for North America: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 187, http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/ds187 . WWalker,F 1853 Ephemerinae. List of the specimens of neuropterous insects in the collection of the British Museum, Part III (Termitidae- Ephemeridae). pp. 533-585. Walley,GS 1930. Review of Ephemerella nymphs of western North America (Ephemeroptera). Canadian Entomologist 62(1):12-20, pl. 2-3. PDF Walsh,BD 1862 List of the Pseudoneuroptera of Illinois contained in the cabinet of the writer, with descriptions of over forty new species, with notes on their structural affinities. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences Philadelphia 14:361-402. Walsh,BD 1863 Observations on certain N. A. Neuroptera, by H. Hagen, M.D., of Koenigsberg, Prussia; translated from the original French ms., and published by permission of the author, with notes and descriptions of about twenty new N.A. species of Pseudoneuroptera. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia 2:167–272. Waltz,RD 1986 Revisionary studies of the mayfly family Baetidae (Ephemeroptera). PhD dissertation, Purdue University 259 pp. Waltz,RD 1995 Baetis ochris, a new synonym of Baetis flavistriga (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Entomological News 106: 75-76. Waltz,RD and Burian,SK 2008 Ephemeroptera. In: An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America. 4th ed. Eds: Merritt,RW; Cummins,KW; Berg,MB Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa, 181-236. Waltz,RD and McCafferty,WP 1987a New genera of Baetidae for some Nearctic species previously in Baetis Leach (Ephemeroptera). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 80:667-670. Waltz,RD and McCafferty,WP 1987b Systematics of Pseudocloeon, Acentrella, Baetiella, and Liebebiella, new genus (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Journal of the New York Entomological Society 95:553-568. Waltz,RD and McCafferty,WP 1997 New generic synonymies in Baetidae (Ephemeroptera). Entomological News 108 2, 134-140. This paper synonmizes a number of Baetidae genera revised by Ephemeroptera researchers in Taiwan and Asia. Wang,T-Q and McCafferty,WP 1995 Relationships of Arthropleidae, Heptageniidae, and Pseudironidae (Ephemeroptera: Heptagenioidea). Entomological News 106 5, 251-256. Wang,TQ and McCafferty,wp 1996 New diagnostic characters for the mayfly family Baetidae (Ephemeroptera). Entomological News 107 2, 207-212. PDF Wang,T.-Q and McCafferty,WP 2004 Heptageniidae (Ephemeroptera) of the world. Part I: Phylogenetic higher classification. Transactions of the American Entomological Society 130(1): 11-45. Wang,T-Q; McCafferty,WP and Bae,YJ 1997 Sister relationship of the Neoephemeridae and Caenidae (Emphemeroptera: Pannota). Entomological News 108 1, 52-56. Ward,JV 1986 Altitudinal zonation in a Rocky Mountain stream. Arch. Hydrobiol., Suppl. 74:133-199. Ward,JV and Berner,L 1980 Abundance and altitudinal distribution of Ephemeroptera in a Rocky Mountain stream. In Advances in Ephemeroptera biology (pp. 169-177). Springer US. PDF Abstract: "The nymphs of 29 species of Ephemeroptera representing six families were collected from rubble riffles in a Colorado stream system, from alpine tundra to the plains. Density ranged from 44 nymphs/m2 at the headwater site to 2,031 nymphs/m2 in the Foothills Limnological Zone. Heptageniidae comprised the majority of the mayflies at upstream sites and were numerically important at all but the plains location. Baetidae attained maximum diversity and relative abundance (62% of total mayflies) in the plains stream. Seven species of Ephemerella exhibited overlapping distribution patterns from 3109 m a.s.l to the plains." Ward,JV and Stanford,JA 1990 Ephemeroptera of the Gunnison River, Colorado, USA. In: Mayflies and Stoneflies. Ed: Campbell,IC Kluwer Academic Publishers, 215-220. PDF Abstract: "Samples were taken year-round at eleven sites (2900-1400m a.s.l.) along the Gunnison River, a 329 km long tributary of the Colorado River, to examine the longitudinal distribution of Ephemeroptera and to assess the response of the mayfly fauna to dams in the headwaters and middle reaches. Nymphal abundance increased from headwaters (791 organisms and 333mg dry weight m-2 at site 1) to lower reaches (2610 organisms and 873 mg at Site 11). Abundance was slightly elevated immediately below the headwater dam (Site 2) whereas damming the middle reaches greatly reduced mayfly density and biomass. Five families (Baetidae, Ephemerellidae, Heptageniidae, Leptophlebiidae, Tricorythidae) comprised from > 98% to 100% of the mayfly fauna at each site. Leptophlebiids and tricorythids were abundant only in the lower reaches. Mayfly species richness exhibited a unimodal pattern with the maximum at Site 4. Both headwater and middle reach dams greatly reduced species richness immediately downstream. Scrapers and collector-gatherers comprised the majority of the mayfly fauna at all sites. Filter-feeders were abundant only at Site 11 where Traverella albertana attained high densities. " Ward,JV; Kondratieff,BC and Zuellig,RE 2002 An Illustrated Guide to the Mountain Stream Insects of Colorado. 2nd ed. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. 219 pages. This is the bible of aquatic insect ID for the mountains of Colorado. Be careful when you collect insects from streams at lower elevations, you will run into species not covered by this valuable book. Webb,JM; Jacobus,LM; Funk,DH; Zhou,X; Kondratieff,BC; Geraci,CJ; DeWalt,RE Baird,DJ Richard,B Philips,I and Hebert,PDN 2012 A DNA barcode library for North American Ephemeroptera: Progress and prospects. PloS One 7(5): e38063 HTML Webb JM and McCafferty,WP 2006 Contribution to the taxonomy of Eastern North American Epeorus Eaton (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae). Zootaxa 1128:57-64. Webb,JM and McCafferty,WP 2008 Heptageniidae of the world. Part II. Key to the genera. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification, 7(10.37551). PDF Abstract: "Keys and diagnoses illustrated with line drawings and colour photographs for the identification of larvae and adult males of the genera of Heptageniidae of the world and female adults of North American Heptageniidae genera are provided. Siberionurus McCafferty is recognized as a junior objective synonym of Ecdyogymnurus Kluge. Epeiron Demoulin is shown to be congeneric with Rhithrogena Eaton. All subgenera that have been proposed for Rhithrogena, Compsoneuria Eaton, and Epeorus Eaton are treated as junior synonyms (Rhithrogena = Himalogena Kluge, N.SYN.; = Sibirigena Kluge, N.SYN.; = Tumungula Zhou & Peters, N.SYN.; Epeorus = Alpiron Braasch, N.SYN.; = Albertiron Kluge, N.SYN.; = Belovius Tshernova; = Caucasiron Kluge, N.SYN.; = Iron Eaton; = Ironopsis Traver; = Proepeorus Kluge, N.SYN.; Compsoneuria = Siamoneuria Braasch, N.SYN.)" Wellnitz,T 2014 Can current velocity mediate trophic cascades in a mountain stream?. Freshwater Biology, 59(11) 2245-2255. PDF Wellnitz,TA; Poff,NL; Cosyleón,G and Steury,B 2001 Current velocity and spatial scale as determinants of the distribution and abundance of two rheophilic herbivorous insects. Landscape Ecology, 16(2), 111-120. PDF Wellnitz,T and Rader,RB 2003 Mechanisms influencing community composition and succession in mountain stream periphyton; interactions between scouring history, grazing and irradiance. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 22 4, 528-541. Abstract and full text White,MM and Licthwardt,RW 2004 Fungal symbionts (Harpellales) in Norwegian aquatic insect larvae. Mycologia, 96(4):891-910. Wiens AP; Rosenberg DM and Evans KW 1975 Symbiocladius equitans (Diptera: Chironomidae), an ectoparasite of Ephemeroptera in the Martin River, Northwest Territories, Canada. Entomologica Germanica 2(2):113-120 PDF Wiersema,NA and McCafferty,WP 2000 Generic revision of the North and Central American Leptohyphidae (Ephemeroptera: Pannota). Transactions of American Entomological Society 126 3+4, 337-371. Discusses the subfamilies Tricorythodinae and Leptohyphinae. Has keys and illustrations to distinguish larvae and adult genera of the Leptohyphidae family. Wiersema,NA and McCafferty,WP 2004 New specific synonyms and records of North American Centroptilum and Procloeon (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Entomological News 115(3):121-128. PDF Wiersema,NA; Nelson,CR and Kuehnl,KF 2004 A new small minnow mayfly (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae) from Utah, USA. Entomological News 115 3, 139-145. Wigglesworth,VB 2012 The principles of insect physiology. Springer Science & Business Media. Wilcox,AC; Peckarsky,BL; Taylor,BW; and Encalada,AC 2008 Hydraulic and geomorphic effects on mayfly drift in high-gradient streams at moderate discharges. Ecohydrology, 1(2), 176-186. PDF Williams,MC and Lichtwardt,RW 1999 Two new Harpellales living in Ephemeroptera nymphs in Colorado Rocky Mountain streams. Mycologia 91:400-404. Willkommen,J 2009 The tergal and pleural wing base sclerites-homologous within the basal branches of Pterygota?. Aquatic Insects, 31(sup1), pp.443-457. PDF Abstract: "The Ephemeroptera are usually regarded as the sister group of the remaining Pterygota. Their wing base sclerites and pterothoracic musculature are compared with that of other basal pterygote lineages. It is shown that most elements of the neopteran wing base are also present in Ephemeroptera and Odonata. The wing base in the ground plan of Pterygota is presumably composed of three axillaries and a proximal median plate. The first axillary is provided with two muscles. The third axillary is equipped with one short muscle in the ground plan of Pterygota. A second muscle, which inserts at the third axillary and originates from the episternum, is most likely an autapomorphic character of Neoptera. The results imply that the wing base of Plecoptera is close to the pterygote ground plan. It is assumed that the wing bases of Ephemeroptera and Odonata are secondarily stiffened. The so-called basalare and its associated muscles in Ephemeroptera and Odonata are probably not homologous to the basalare and respective muscles in Neoptera. Though the wing bases of both Ephemeroptera and Odonata show similar modifications their specialisations may have evolved independently from each other." Willkommen,J 2008 The morphology of the pterothorax of Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Plecoptera (Insecta) and the homology of wing base sclerites and flight muscles. Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde A, Neue Serie, 1, pp.203-300. PDF Abstract: "The ability to fly was the decisive factor for the evolutionary success of the most diverse group of insects, the Pterygota. Nevertheless, the ground plan of the functionally important wing base has not been sufficiently clarified. The aim of this study is to homologise the wing base sclerites of Ephemeroptera, usually regarded as sister group of the remaining Pterygota, with that of other basal pterygote lineages and to reconstruct the ground plan of the wing base of Pterygota. The pterothoracic musculature of representatives of the three basal lineages of Pterygota (Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Neoptera) is also described and discussed. Contrary to previous hypotheses, it is shown that most elements of the neopteran wing base are also present in Ephemeroptera and Odonata. The wing base in the ground plan of Pterygota is presumably composed of three axillary sclerites. The proximal median plate is probably also present in the ground plan of Pterygota. The first axillary is provided with two muscles. The third axillary is equipped with a short muscle that originates from the epimeron. This muscle is interpreted as another ground plan character of Pterygota. In Plecoptera a second muscle inserts at the third axillary sclerite. It originates from the episternum and is most likely an autapomorphic character of Neoptera. The results imply that the wing base of the Plecoptera is close to the pterygote ground plan. It is assumed that the wing base of Ephemeroptera and Odonata is secondarily stiffened. The so-called basalare and its associated muscles in Ephemeroptera and Odonata are probably not homologous to the basalare and respective muscles in Neoptera. The enlarged subalare and associated muscles, the large dorsal longitudinal muscle, the small metathorax and shortened hind wings in Ephemeroptera suggest that mayflies have a derived flight apparatus in many respects. The Odonata on the other hand show different specialisations, namely a synthorax, large direct flight musculature, and a fusion of second and third axillary with the proximal median plate. Though the wing base in both taxa is secondarily stiffened, the specialisations of Ephemeroptera and Odonata may have evolved independently from each other." Winget,RN 1993 Habitat partitioning among three species of Ephemerelloidea. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 8 3, 227-234. Abstract: "Niche volumes according to several physical and water quality parameters are shown for Drunella grandis, Drunella doddsi and Tricorythodes minutus. Generalist strategies have been adopted by D. grandis for physical habitat characteristics and by T. minutus for water quality characteristics. Drunella doddsi, a specialist, has the smallest physical habitat and water quality niche dimensions of the three mayfly species. Even though each has its own unique niche, there is some overlap between them for most niche dimensions studied. These overlaps are probably present because density independent seasonal limiting factors in western United States streams are as strong or stronger selectors than many density dependent factors. Also, each species has its own unique niche "hypervolume" that changes from station to station and from time to time. " Winget,RN and Mangum,FA 1991 Environmental profile of Traver (Ephemeroptera: Tricorythidae) in the Western United States. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 6 3, 335-344. Winget,RN and Mangum,FA 1996 Environmental profile of Drunella coloradensis Dodds (Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae) in the Western United States. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 11 2, 225-232. Wipfli,MS; Hudson,J and Caouette,J 1998 Influence of salmon carcasses on stream productivity: response of biofilm and benthic macroinvertebrates in southeastern Alaska, U.S.A. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55(6): 1503-1511 Abstract">PDF Wolfe,JM; Daley,AC; Legg,DA and Edgecombe,GD 2016 Fossil calibrations for the arthropod Tree of Life. Earth-Science Reviews, 160, pp.43-110. PDF Abstract: "Fossil age data and molecular sequences are increasingly combined to establish a timescale for the Tree of Life. Arthropods, as the most species-rich and morphologically disparate animal phylum, have received substantial attention, particularly with regard to questions such as the timing of habitat shifts (e.g. terrestrialisation), genome evolution (e.g. gene family duplication and functional evolution), origins of novel characters and behaviours (e.g. wings and flight, venom, silk), biogeography, rate of diversification (e.g. Cambrian explosion, insect coevolution with angiosperms, evolution of crab body plans), and the evolution of arthropod microbiomes. We present herein a series of rigorously vetted calibration fossils for arthropod evolutionary history, taking into account recently published guidelines for best practice in fossil calibration. These are restricted to Palaeozoic and Mesozoic fossils, no deeper than ordinal taxonomic level, nonetheless resulting in 80 fossil calibrations for 102 clades. This work is especially timely owing to the rapid growth of molecular sequence data and the fact that many included fossils have been described within the last five years. This contribution provides a resource for systematists and other biologists interested in deep-time questions in arthropod evolution." XYZZhou,X; Adamowicz,SJ; Jacobus,LM; DeWalt,RE and Hebert,PD 2009 Towards a comprehensive barcode library for arctic life-Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera of Churchill, Manitoba, Canada. Frontiers in zoology, 6(1), p.30. HTML Zitnan,D; Zitnanová,I; Spalovská,I; Takác,P; Park,Y and Adams,ME 2003 Conservation of ecdysis-triggering hormone signalling in insects. The Journal of Experimental Biology 206, 1275-1289. Full Text They studied Epeorus sp. and Heptagenia sp. among other insects. Zloty,J 1996 A revision of nearctic Ameletus mayflies based on adult males, with descriptions of seven new species (Ephemeroptera: Ameletidae). Canadian Entomologist 128 (2) 293-346. Abstract PDF Zloty,JS 1996 Systematics of Nearctic Ameletus mayflies (Ephemeroptera: Ameletidae). Ph.D. dissertation, University of Calgary, Alberta. Zloty,J and Pritchard,G 1997 Larvae and adults of Ameletus mayflies (Ephemeroptera: Ameletidae) from Alberta. Canadian entomologist, 129(2), 251-290. PDF Zuellig,RE; Heinold,BD; Kondratieff,BC and Ruiter,DE 2012 Diversity and Distribution of Mayflies (Ephemeroptera), Stoneflies (Plecoptera), and Caddisflies (Trichoptera) of the South Platte River Basin, Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming, 1873-2010.U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 606, 257 p. PDF - caution 46MB Zuellig,RE; Kashian,DR; Brooks,ML; Kiffney,PM and Clements,WH 2008 The influence of metal exposure history and ultraviolet-B radiation on benthic communities in Colorado Rocky Mountain streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 27(1), 120-134. PDF Zuellig,RE; Kondratieff,BC and Rhodes,HA 2002 Benthos recovery after an episodic sediment release into a Colorado Rocky Mountain river. Western North American Naturalist 62 (1) 59-72. Abstract: "During late September 1996, approximately 7000 m3 of clay- to gravel-sized sediment was flushed from Halligan Reservoir, Larimer County, Colorado, into the North Fork Cache la Poudre River during dam inspections. Approximately 9.6 km of this river was partially or completely affected by this episodic sediment release. Pools up to 3.2 km downstream from the dam lost 50% of their volume. Hess samples taken from October 1996 to September 1997, 100 m downstream from the dam (site 1) and 3.2 km downstream (site 2), revealed effects of sediment on recovery patterns of benthic communities. A 2-way ANOVA was used to determine significant interactions using site and date as main factors. Pairwise differences were then compared using least squares means to determine significant dates within and between sites. Ten days after the sediment release, both density and taxa richness at site 1 (55 organisms per m2 , 5 taxa) were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than site 2 (1156 organisms per m 2 , 25 taxa). These differences remained until June when species richness and densities increased. Plecoptera and Trichoptera colonized from June to September after being eliminated at site 1 and reduced at site 2. No permanently flowing tributaries exist within the study area; therefore, passive downstream drift from such inputs apparently did not influence recovery. Increased densities of taxa such as Baetidae, Hydroptilidae, Hydropsychidae, Chironomidae, Simuliidae, and Oligochaeta occurred plausibly by rapid reproduction. Based on pre-event data, community function completely changed at site 2 from a scraper community to one dominated by collector-gatherers." Brown, Wendy S. 2004 Extended reading for those obsessed with the Mayflies of central Colorado www.gunnisoninsects.org "Ever drifting down the stream-- Lingering in the golden gleam-- Life, what is it but a dream?" Lewis Carroll | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||